User:MayaHBu/The Rape of Europa (Titian)

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The Rape of Europa
ArtistTitian
Yearca. 1559/1560–1562
MediumOil on canvas
Dimensions178 cm × 205 cm (70 in × 81 in)
LocationIsabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston

One of the renditions of The Rape of Europa was painted by an Italian Renaissance, Venetian artist by the name Tiziano Vecelli or Vecellio or more commonly known as Titian (.1488/90- 1576) It was painted between ca. 1559/1560- 1562 and it considered an example of Titian's late style, where he empathize the colors that he is using along with how he is manipulating the paint as way to show texture and create motion. Coupled with the techniques in terms of the kinds of brushstrokes that are used. Looking at the x-ray of the painting, a thin layer of gesso ground is applied, and then later Titian added layers of paint, that combined to create a finished composition.

This artwork was a part of poesie series for King Philip II. This commission began in 1553 and consisted of seven mythological paintings that discussed the human condition in terms of women. The oil on canvas has dimensions of 187 cm X 205 cm(70 in x. 81 in ). This painting is displayed in the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston. One of the inspirations for this painting comes from Ovid's Metamorphoses where he entails the seduction and the abduction of Europa (consort of Zeus). [1]This is demonstrated in the similarities in Ovid translation and how Titian used these descriptions to convey this scene.[2] The physical description that Titian used concedes with the translation of Ovid, in terms of the way that Europa positions her body and the physical description of the bull. "His color is like snow[3] and " Muscles bulge around his neck". Both of these descriptions follow along with how Titian painted the bull. Europa's description matches what Titian painted," clutching one of his horns in her right hand" [4] "bracing the other hand along his back. Winds keep tugging at her trembling garments[5]."

This article breaks down the subject matter of the painting, such that Europa gets abducted and sexually assaulted by Zeus who is in the form of a white bull. Secondly, this article looks at the viewership of this painting and how it affects the legacy of Titian, which blends into how his art affected and inspired later artists, coupled with how it affects the viewership of the painting. Thirdly, this article examines the representation of sexual violence against women in the Italian Renaissance. Lastly, this article looks at the ethical validity of representing a scene that depicts sexual violence.

Subject[edit]

The origins of Europa are disputed according to Hesiod, who describes Europa as the daughter of the TitanTethys (mythology) and the ocean[6]. In Homer's Iliad, she is the daughter of the Phoenix[7]. In the 5th century, Herodotus describes her as a princess of a Phoenician king of Tyre Agenor, and Phoenix is her brother.[8] In Ovid version, she is the daughter of Agenor, King of Tyre or Sidon in Phoenicia[9]. According to Ovid Europa and her attendants were gathering flowers in a bountiful meadow filled with cattle and is next to the coast. Jupiter who presumably is watching her from Mount Olympus, becomes enamored by her beauty and plans to capture her. Jupiter takes the form of a beautiful white bull, as Ovid describes " his horns are bent,[...] brighter than a perfect gem.[10] Europa initially is afraid and is uneasy when the white bull approaches her. Unlike the other bulls in the cattle, Jupiter assumed the character of a docile bull, ensuring that Europa would feel unthreatened thus ensuring her capture. Jupiter is described as being "lovely and unthreatening"[11]. Jupiter is rewarded for his gentleness and Europa gifts him a flower crown. Jupiter finds pleasure in this gift and is struggling to keep still, and eventually runs and plays with the other cattle in the meadow. The more time he spends in this disguise, Europa's feelings of uneasiness fade and Jupiter in full form shows his belly and chest, and Europa attempts to ride the bull. Once she sits on his back, he takes off and flies from the coast and across Europe with Euproa on his back. Horrified at what is happening and foreshadowing what's to come, Europa looks back at her attendants and realizes that she will never return home. To display the speed of Jupiter, Europa is moving against the wind, demonstrated by her garments being skin tight(exemplifying her body) while also being loose and extra fabric flowing in the wind. This is also demonstrated in the pink garments, seeing how they move in response, to the environment.

Since Europa is being dragged across the country, she is holding on to the horn of the bull to keep herself from falling off. Jupiter brings her to Crete[12] where he sexually assaults her and she gives birth to Minos and Minotaur[13]. In some renditions, Rhadamanthys or Sarpedon (Trojan War hero) is her third son. When Jupiter is ready to leave, he gives her a couple of gifts, a necklace by Hephaestus, a bronze guard Talos, a javelin who never misses, and lastly a dog Laelaps (mythology).

History[edit]

When Titan young he took an apprenticeship under Sebastiano Zuccato where he studied mosaics. Soon after he eventually switched workshops and Apprentice under Gentile Bellini, succeeding the death of Gentile, Titian went to work for his brother Giovanni  Bellini. Having worked with Giovanni allow Titian to officially meet Giorgione, who used to be an apprentice and guided titian to develop his early style. Around 1508 Titian continue to collaborate with Giorgione's  allowing them to create the Christ carrying the cross. it is recognized that Titian should be attributed to this work and not Giorgione's. Eventually Titian developed his own style and sought away from Giorgione's  style in terms of the color he chose, the balance between light and Shadow.

1510 He started to have his own career following the death of Giovanni Bellini and 1516 Titian made the, portrait of Pope Paul III, The Venus of Urbino, Venus and love, Venus with organist and the dog, the portrait of Pietro Aretino, and the equestrian portrait of Charles the 5th. Eventually seeking traction ,Titian is well known for having a lot of international clientele's he produced a series of Poesie for King Philip II of Spain which had methodical themes. During this time when he created the Rape of Europa

Legacy of Titian and Viewership[edit]

The viewership of this painting was exclusive to members of the aristocracy and subscribed to high-class culture. The viewership of this painting would have been wealthy men. This painting, as stated before is a part of a series that was sent to Spain per the king's request; Phillip II wanted to have his own private and exclusive gallery. The only people who were allowed to view this painting were people the king personally invited to. Thus making the viewership exclusively male also highlights that this work of art is only to be appreciated and worshiped by high-class society. The impaction of this further indicates that only the wealthy could own art therefore the wealthy should be the only ones to view art. Signifying that the lower class will not be able to appreciate this art. it is noted that Titian, did not have a stance on this painting, since his goal was to simply be paid for his work.

The rape of Europa is attributed as being one of Titian's masterpieces and has become highly celebrated due to the use of luminous and bright colors and the different textures. Upon first glance, this painting appears that it would have heavy layers of oil paint but it is a very thin layer of paint. The use of color, brushwork, and smudging of the paint on the canvas blend to create vibrant scenes that can show motion. Not to mention the influence he had on Renaissance art and Venice as a city. The use of his technique made him distinguishable from other artists.

The legacy of Titian through his work has influenced many other Italian painters such as Peter Paul Rubens, and Diego Velázquez. due to the use of composition, color, brush strokes, light and shadow, and textures. Titian is well known for being able to have his paintings be more 4-dimensional, and dynamic, and being able to create motion and movement and ultimately giving the painting life..

Representation of Women in art[edit]

The depiction of sexual violence against women in the arts is a familiar field that many artists have contributed to. Many famous artists such as Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Titian, Peter Paul Rubens, Bernini, etc have painted scenes where women have been victims of these crimes. In these works the perpetrators are usually the male gods, or high-status men, and the victims are usually young women and girls. In the written myths, specifically, the rape of the Sabine Women, the women in these stories, are supposed to act as if being sexually assaulted is an honor. This signifies that their bodies are only a means of commerce to be traded. Representing women in this way further dissects the power imbalance between men and women. Ultimately, showing that men have the authority to decide what women do with their bodies. Looking at other works of art that display these kinds of scenes, it is clear that there is a beautification of sexual violence.[14] Examples like Nicolas Poussin's Rape of the Sabine Women, Bernini’s Rape of Proserpina, Titian Tarquin, and Lucretia all show women at the hands and the disposal of men. While these works of art are skillfully executed, they display graphic, problematic issues that stem from the objection, and the belief that women are less than men. The message that it sent is that women are also supposed to sacrifice themselves for men and the betterment of society. Furthering the connection that women were something to be traded and had monetary value based on. The social impact of paintings like these explains how the female body was something that was only admired for her physical form and beauty. Even though these scenes show violence against women, it still highlights the female form. Women in these paintings are subordinates and have less value and importance than their male counterparts. Therefore solidifying the power imbalance where women are reduced to being the muse. Paintings that are in this field function as a behavioral lesson to women, to show that, their bodies are at the disposal of men. Therefore are rendering them powerless against the men.

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Ethics[edit]

intro:

To effectively reveal an abduction, you have to show the perpetrator's aggression and force coupled with the fear and terror in the victim's face and then body Europa's face does not match her body, her body conveys a message of terror and fear, but her face is rather ambiguous [1]Europa head is tilted slightly backwards, but it is inconlusive to where she is looking. She could be looking up at the baby Putto, due to the pure shock factor of what is happening. Considering that she is being stolen away on the back of a magic bull and a baby putti is flying in the air, her lack of reaction could also be due to be also her disassociating from her body.

According to one scholar, he argues that Europa's face is sexua[15]l due to her erotic nature of the painting [1]. The scholar argues that Europa's face should be more concrete, meaning that she should have an expression of fear and terror. The lack of his reaction, the scholar argues, is due to Europa receiving sexual gratification from this physically violent encounter. He poses that scenes like this depict and imply the falsehood that women crave sexual acts of violence, thus resolving men for committing these crimes[3] The posture of Europa, allows the viewer to see that she is not willing to sit on the back of the bull. Her feet are pushed out in the air signifying that she is kicking and fighting off this advance. The use of this dynamic between the motion-filled Europa and the stiffness of Zeus shows the power struggle between both characters. Zeus being the dominant figure, does not look like he is moving. This is due to him holding the power therefore there would be no need to struggle. Europa who lacks power is fighting to the best of her ability to attempt to take the power back from Zeus but to no avail. What makes the painting unlike the others in this commission is its ability to invoke both ethos and pathos.

Another scholar believed that Titian instead of portraying a scene with a victim and an aggressor, Titian turned this scene into an erotic one as believed by the lack of expression on her face and the sexual nature of her clothes. This scene is critiqued due to its glorification and eroticization of sexualized violence. Upon further examination, the use of her clothes possibly signifies an erotic scene[16]. The white drapery represents virginity and chastity but reveals her body to the viewer. The garment senates her body by being tight around her private region. The garment also looks wet and is falling off her body and revealing her breasts. In some areas, the fabric clings to her body to highlight her female body. The duality between the pink and white garnet comments on the balance being sexual desire and virginity.

Separatism is a modern view that believes in looking at works of art in terms of their good qualities and bad qualities. Doing so allows the reader to weigh both the good and the bad of a painting another modern view is separatism. Separatists view Titian's painting as beautiful but it fails in terms of what it represents and signifies. In doing so separatists evaluated the techniques, composition, Line work, light and shadow, color, etc, by condemning the painting for its graphic nature.

Titian's Poesie[edit]

Titian (Italian, about 1488–1576), Danaë, 1551–1553. Oil on canvas, 187 x 204.5 cm (73 5/8 x 80 1/2 in.)
Titian (Pieve di Cadore, about 1488–1576, Venice), Diana and Acteon, 1556–59. Oil on canvas.
Titian (Italian, about 1488–1576), Diana and Callisto, 1556–1559. Oil on canvas, 187 x 204.5 cm (73 5/8 x 80 1/2 in.)
Titian (Italian, 1488–1576), Perseus and Andromeda, about 1554–1556. Oil on canvas, 230 x 243 cm (90 9/16 x 95 11/16 in.)
Titian (Italian, about 1488–1576), Venus and Adonis, about 1553–1554. Oil on canvas, 186 x 207 cm (73 1/4 x 81 1/2 in.)
Titian (Italian, 1488–1576), The Rape of Europa, 1559–1562. Oil on canvas, 178 x 205 cm (70 1/16 x 80 11/16 in.) Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston (P26e1)

References[edit]

  1. Eaton, A. W. (2003). Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian’s Rape of Europa. Hypatia, 18(4), 159–188. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3810979
  2. Carpenter, R. B. (1962). Woman, Landscape and Myth: In Titian’s Rape of Europa. Art Journal, 21(4), 246–249. https://doi.org/10.2307/774573
  3. Stone, D. (1972). The Source of Titian’s Rape of Europa. The Art Bulletin, 54(1), 47–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/3048932
  4. Even, Y. (2001). COMMODIFYING IMAGES OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY ITALIAN ART. Source: Notes in the History of Art, 20(2), 13–19. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23206799
  5. Bridget T. Reeves. (2007). The Role of the Ekphrasis in Plot Development: The Painting of Europa and the Bull in Achilles Tatius’ “Leucippe and Clitophon.” Mnemosyne, 60(1), 87–101. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4433794
  6. Andrews, P. B. S. (1969). The Myth of Europa and Minos. Greece & Rome, 16(1), 60–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/642899
  7. Baskins, C. L. (1994). GENDER TROUBLE IN ITALIAN RENAISSANCE ART HISTORY: TWO CASE STUDIES. Studies in Iconography, 16, 1–36. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23924090
  8. Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. or 18 A.D. (1989). Ovid's Metamorphoses. Dallas, Tex.: Spring Publications
  9. Even, Y. (2004). ON THE ART AND LIFE OF COLLECTIVE SEXUAL VIOLENCE IN RENAISSANCE ITALY. Source: Notes in the History of Art, 23(4), 7–14. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23207989
  10. DEACY, S., & VILLING, A. (2009). WHAT WAS THE COLOUR OF ATHENA’S AEGIS? The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 129, 111–129. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20789894
  11. Homer. (1950). The Iliad. New York, Modern Library.
  12. Hesiod., & West, M. L. (1999). Theogony: and, Works and days.
  13. Lattimore, Richmond; Myres, John L. (1954). "Herodotus. Father of History". Phoenix. 8 (3): 109. doi:10.2307/1086406. ISSN 0031-8299.
  1. ^ Stone, Donald (1972). "The Source of Titian's Rape of Europa". The Art Bulletin. 54 (1): 47–49. doi:10.2307/3048932. ISSN 0004-3079.
  2. ^ Stone, Donald (1972). "The Source of Titian's Rape of Europa". The Art Bulletin. 54 (1): 47–49. doi:10.2307/3048932. ISSN 0004-3079.
  3. ^ Ovid (2015-11-12), "Metamorphoses, Translation of Book 1", The Vulgate Commentary on Ovid's Metamorphoses, Medieval Institute Publications, pp. 1–22, retrieved 2023-11-17
  4. ^ Ovid (2015-11-12), "Metamorphoses, Translation of Book 1", The Vulgate Commentary on Ovid's Metamorphoses, Medieval Institute Publications, pp. 1–22, retrieved 2023-11-17
  5. ^ Ovid (2015-11-12), "Metamorphoses, Translation of Book 1", The Vulgate Commentary on Ovid's Metamorphoses, Medieval Institute Publications, pp. 1–22, retrieved 2023-11-17
  6. ^ The Poems of Hesiod. University of California Press. 2017-08-01. ISBN 978-0-520-96622-2.
  7. ^ Homer (2000-12-21), "Iliad", Homer: Iliad Book One, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-872186-4, retrieved 2023-11-17
  8. ^ Lattimore, Richmond; Myres, John L. (1954). "Herodotus. Father of History". Phoenix. 8 (3): 109. doi:10.2307/1086406. ISSN 0031-8299.
  9. ^ Ovid (2015-11-12), "Metamorphoses, Translation of Book 1", The Vulgate Commentary on Ovid's Metamorphoses, Medieval Institute Publications, pp. 1–22, retrieved 2023-11-17
  10. ^ Ovid (2015-11-12), "Metamorphoses, Translation of Book 1", The Vulgate Commentary on Ovid's Metamorphoses, Medieval Institute Publications, pp. 1–22, retrieved 2023-11-17
  11. ^ Ovid (2015-11-12), "Metamorphoses, Translation of Book 1", The Vulgate Commentary on Ovid's Metamorphoses, Medieval Institute Publications, pp. 1–22, retrieved 2023-11-17
  12. ^ Reeves, Bridget T. (2007). "The Role of the Ekphrasis in Plot Development: The Painting of Europa and the Bull in Achilles Tatius' "Leucippe and Clitophon"". Mnemosyne. 60 (1): 87–101. ISSN 0026-7074.
  13. ^ Andrews, P. B. S. (1969). "The Myth of Europa and Minos". Greece & Rome. 16 (1): 60–66. ISSN 0017-3835.
  14. ^ Even, Yael (2001). "Commodifying Images of Sexual Violence in Sixteenth-Century Italian Art". Source: Notes in the History of Art. 20 (2): 13–19. ISSN 0737-4453.
  15. ^ Eaton, A. W. (2003). "Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian's Rape of Europa". Hypatia. 18 (4): 159–188. ISSN 0887-5367.
  16. ^ Eaton, A. W. (2003). "Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian's Rape of Europa". Hypatia. 18 (4): 159–188. ISSN 0887-5367.
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