User:Lds/Sandbox/Zhuge Liang

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Zhuge Liang
諸葛亮
Imperial Chancellor of Shu Han
In office 229 (229) – September or October 234 (September or October 234)
In office May 221 (May 221) – 228 (228)
Monarch	Liu Bei / Liu Shan
General of the Right (右將軍)
In office 228 (228)–229 (229)
Monarch	Liu Shan
Governor of Yi Province (益州牧)
In office 223 (223) – September or October 234 (September or October 234)
Monarch	Liu Shan
Succeeded by	Jiang Wan (as Inspector)
Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隸校尉)
In office 221 (221) – September or October 234 (September or October 234)
Monarch	Liu Bei / Liu Shan
Preceded by	Zhang Fei
Manager of the Affairs of the Masters of Writing (錄尚書事)
In office 221 (221) – September or October 234 (September or October 234)
Monarch	Liu Bei / Liu Shan
Succeeded by	Jiang Wan
Personal details
Born	181 Yinan County, Shandong
Died	September or October 234 (aged 53) Wuzhang Plains, Shaanxi
Resting place	Mount Dingjun, Shaanxi
Spouse	Lady Huang
Relations	see Zhuge clan of Langya
Children	Zhuge Qiao (adopted) Zhuge Zhan Zhuge Huai Zhuge Guo
Parent	Zhuge Gui (father)
Occupation	Statesman, military leader, scholar, inventor
Courtesy name	Kongming (孔明)
Posthumous name	Marquis Zhongwu (忠武侯)
Peerage	Marquis of Wu District (武鄉侯)
Nickname(s)	"Crouching Dragon" (臥龍 / 伏龍)

Lds/Sandbox/Zhuge Liang
Traditional Chinese	諸葛亮
Simplified Chinese	诸葛亮
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Zhūgě Liàng Gwoyeu Romatzyh Ju-ger Lianq Wade–Giles Chu1-ko3 Liang4 IPA [ʈʂú.kɤ̌ ljâŋ] Wu Romanization Tsü-keʔ Liang Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Jyū-got Leuhng Jyutping Zyu1-got3 Loeng6 IPA [tsyː˥kɔːt̚˧ lœːŋ˨] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Chu-kat Liōng Tâi-lô Tsu-kat Liōng
Kongming (courtesy name)
Chinese	孔明
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Kǒngmíng Gwoyeu Romatzyh Koong-ming Wade–Giles Kʻung³-ming² IPA [kʰʊ̀ŋmǐŋ] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Húng-mìhng Jyutping Hung2-ming4 Southern Min Hokkien POJ Khóng-bîng

In this Chinese name, the family name is Zhuge.

Zhuge Liang (pronunciation^ⓘ) (181 – September or October 234), also commonly known by his courtesy name Kongming, was a Chinese statesman, strategist, scholar, engineer and inventor who lived through the end of the Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220) and the early to mid-Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of China. During the Three Kingdoms period, he served as the Imperial Chancellor (or Prime Minister) of the state of Shu Han (221–263) from its founding in 221 and later as regent from 223 until his death in September or October 234.

He is recognised as the most accomplished strategist of his era, and has been compared to Sun Tzu, the author of The Art of War. Often depicted wearing a Daoist robe and holding a hand fan made of crane feathers, His reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he was living in relative seclusion, earning him the nickname "Wolong" or "Fulong" (both literally mean "Crouching Dragon").

Though Confucian oriented, Zhuge Liang was also a self-avowed Legalist. He compared himself with Guan Zhong, developing Shu's agriculture and industry to become a regional power. He attached great importance to the works of Shen Buhai and Han Fei, refusing to indulge local elites and adopting strict, but fair and clear laws. In remembrance of his governance, local people maintained shrines to him for ages.

Zhuge is an uncommon two-character Chinese compound family name. His name – even his surname alone – has become synonymous with intelligence and strategy in Chinese culture. In 760, when Emperor Suzong of the Tang dynasty built a temple to honour Jiang Ziya, he had sculptures of Zhuge Liang and another nine famous historical military generals/strategists – Bai Qi, Han Xin, Li Jing, Li Shiji, Zhang Liang, Tian Rangju, Sun Tzu, Wu Qi and Yue Yi – placed in the temple flanking Jiang Ziya's statue.

Copied content to Zhuge Liang

Copied content to Zhuge Liang as Lds's work is an all around far better and complete version of the current Wikipedia page. More detailed and well sourced. For further information, see these two discussions. first and second.

Historical sources on Zhuge Liang's life

The authoritative historical source on Zhuge Liang's life is his biography in Volume 35 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi), which was written by the historian Chen Shou (233–297) in the third century.

In the fifth century, the Liu Song dynasty historian Pei Songzhi (372–451) annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal commentary. Some alternative texts used in the annotations to the Sanguozhi include:

• Xiandi Chunqiu (獻帝春秋; Chronicles of Emperor Xian) by Yuan Wei (袁暐)
• Han Jin Chunqiu (漢晉春秋; Chronicles of Han and Jin) by Xi Zuochi
• Xiangyang Ji (襄陽記; Records of Xiangyang) by Xi Zuochi
• Wei Shu (魏書; Book of Wei) by Wang Chen, Xun Yi and Ruan Ji
• Weilue (魏略; Brief History of Wei) by Yu Huan
• Wei Shi Chunqiu (魏氏春秋; Chronicles of the Ruling Family of Wei) by Sun Sheng
• Jin Yang Qiu (晉陽秋) by Sun Sheng
• Yuanzi (袁子) by Yuan Zhun (袁準)
• Shu Ji (蜀記; Records of Shu) by Wang Yin (王隱)
• Wu Shu (吳書; Book of Wu) by Wei Zhao
• Lingling Xianxian Zhuan (零陵先賢傳; Biographies of the Departed Worthies of Lingling)

In the mid Qing dynasty, the historian Zhang Zhu (張澍; 1776–1847) compiled and arranged multiple pieces of literature on Zhuge Liang into an 11-volume collection called Zhuge Zhongwu Hou Wen Ji (諸葛忠武侯文集; Literature Collection of Marquis Zhuge Zhongwu). The collection contained, among other things, a preface by Zhang Zhu, Zhuge Liang's biography from the Sanguozhi, Zhuge Liang's writings, imperial edicts issued to Zhuge Liang, and appraisals of Zhuge Liang. In 1960, Duan Xizhong (段熙仲) and Wen Xuchu (聞旭初) annotated and reorganised Zhang Zhu's original collection, and had it published by the Zhonghua Book Company under the title Zhuge Liang Ji (諸葛亮集; Collected Works of Zhuge Liang).

Physical appearance

The only known historical description of Zhuge Liang's physical appearance comes from the Sanguozhi, which recorded that he was eight chi tall.

In Moss Roberts' translation of the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Zhuge Liang's appearance is described as follows:

Kongming appeared singularly tall, with a face like gleaming jade and a plaited silken band around his head. Cloaked in crane down, he had the buoyant air of a spiritual transcendent.

The original Chinese text in the novel mentions that Zhuge Liang wore a guanjin (綸巾; a type of hat) and a hechang (鶴氅; a robe commonly worn by Daoists).

Family background

Zhuge Liang's ancestral home was in Yangdu County (陽都縣), Langya Commandery (琅邪郡), which is located around present-day Yinan County or Yishui County, Shandong. There are two other accounts of his ancestral origins in the Wu Shu (吳書) and Fengsu Tong (風俗通).

The Wu Shu recorded that his ancestral family name was actually Ge (葛) and his ancestors were originally from Zhu County (諸縣; southwest of present-day Zhucheng, Shandong) before they settled in Yangdu County. As there was already another Ge family in Yangdu County before they came, the locals referred to the newcomers as the Zhuge – combining Zhu (County) and Ge – to distinguish them from the other Ge family. Over time, Zhuge Liang's ancestors adopted Zhuge as their family name.

The Fengsu Tong recorded that Zhuge Liang's ancestor was Ge Ying (葛嬰), who served under Chen Sheng, a rebel leader who led the Dazexiang uprising against the Qin dynasty. Chen Sheng later executed Ge Ying. During the early Western Han dynasty, Emperor Wen considered that Ge Ying was unjustly put to death so he enfeoffed Ge Ying's grandson as the Marquis of Zhu County to honour Ge Ying. Over time, Ge Ying's descendants adopted Zhuge as their family name by combining Zhu (County) and Ge.

The earliest known ancestor of Zhuge Liang who bore the family name Zhuge was Zhuge Feng (諸葛豐), a Western Han dynasty official who served as Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隷校尉) under Emperor Yuan (r. 48–33 BCE). Zhuge Liang's father, Zhuge Gui (諸葛珪), whose courtesy name was Jungong (君貢), served as an assistant official in Taishan Commandery (泰山郡; around present-day Tai'an, Shandong) during the late Eastern Han dynasty under Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 CE).

Zhuge Liang had an elder brother, a younger brother, and two elder sisters. His elder brother was Zhuge Jin and his younger brother was Zhuge Jun (諸葛均). The elder of Zhuge Liang's two sisters married Kuai Qi (蒯祺) while the younger one married Pang Shanmin (龐山民), a cousin of Pang Tong.

Early life

As Zhuge Liang was orphaned at a young age, he was raised by Zhuge Xuan, one of his father's cousins. He accompanied Zhuge Xuan to Yuzhang Commandery (豫章郡; around present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi) when the latter was appointed as the Commandery Administrator sometime in the mid-190s. Later, after the Han central government designated Zhu Hao as the new Administrator, Zhuge Xuan left Yuzhang Commandery and brought Zhuge Liang and Zhuge Jun to Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) to live with the provincial governor Liu Biao, whom he was an old friend of.

After Zhuge Xuan died, Zhuge Liang moved to Deng County (鄧縣) in Nanyang Commandery (南陽郡), and settled down in Longzhong (隆中), an area about 20 li west of Xiangyang, the capital of Jing Province. In Longzhong, he lived the life of a peasant and spent his free time reading and travelling. He enjoyed reciting Liangfu Yin (梁父吟), a folk song popular in the area around his ancestral home in Shandong. The local literati scorned him when they learnt that he often compared himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi. Only a few, namely Cui Zhouping (崔州平), Xu Shu, Shi Guangyuan (石廣元) and Meng Gongwei (孟公威), got along well with him and agreed that he was comparable to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi.

Between the late 190s and early 200s, Zhuge Liang often studied and travelled with Xu Shu, Shi Guangyuan and Meng Gongwei. Whenever he read, he only picked up the key points and moved on. His three friends, in contrast, focused on details and sometimes even memorised them. Throughout his time in Longzhong, he led a carefree life and took his time to do things. He often sat down with his arms around his knees, sighing to himself from time to time while in deep thought. He once told his three friends that they would become commandery administrators or provincial governors if they served in the government. When they asked him what his ambition was, he only laughed and did not give an answer.

Zhuge Liang's meeting with Liu Bei

Recommendations from Sima Hui and Xu Shu

At the time, the warlord Liu Bei was living in Xinye County as a guest of Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province. During this time, he met the hermit Sima Hui and consulted him on the affairs of their time. Sima Hui said, "What do Confucian academics and common scholars know about current affairs? Only outstanding talents have the best understanding of current affairs. In this region, there are two of such talents: Crouching Dragon and Young Phoenix." When Liu Bei asked him who "Crouching Dragon" and "Young Phoenix" were, Sima Hui replied, "Zhuge Kongming and Pang Shiyuan." Xu Shu, whom Liu Bei regarded highly, also recommended Zhuge Liang by saying, "Zhuge Kongming is the Crouching Dragon. General, don't you want to meet him?" When Liu Bei asked Xu Shu if he could bring Zhuge Liang to meet him, Xu Shu advised him to personally visit Zhuge Liang instead of asking Zhuge Liang to come to him.

Liu Bei's three visits

The Sanguozhi recorded in just one sentence that Liu Bei visited Zhuge Liang three times and met him. The Zizhi Tongjian recorded that the meeting(s) took place in 207.

Weilue and Jiuzhou Chunqiu accounts

The Weilüe and Jiuzhou Chunqiu (九州春秋), however, provide a completely different account of how Liu Bei met Zhuge Liang. It mentioned that Liu Bei was at Fancheng (樊城; present-day Fancheng District, Xiangyang, Hubei) at the time, and that Cao Cao had just pacified northern China and was preparing to attack Jing Province. Zhuge Liang went to Fancheng to meet Liu Bei, who treated him like any other ordinary guest because he did not know Zhuge Liang before that, and thought that he was just a typical young scholar. When all the other guests left after the meeting, Zhuge Liang stayed behind. Liu Bei did not ask him if he had something to say, and started playing with a gift from one of the guests. Zhuge Liang said, "I heard that you, General, have great ambitions, yet all I see is you playing with that." When Liu Bei heard that, he sensed that Zhuge Liang was no ordinary person so he threw aside the gift and said he was only playing with it as a hobby. Zhuge Liang then asked him if he and Liu Biao could resist an invasion by Cao Cao. When Liu Bei replied that neither him nor Liu Biao was capable of resisting Cao Cao and that he was at a loss on what to do, Zhuge Liang proposed a plan for him. He pointed out that there were large numbers of refugees who migrated south to Jing Province to escape from the chaos in central and northern China, and suggested to Liu Bei to have them registered as new residents so that the Jing Province administration could collect taxes from them and draft them into military service. Liu Bei heeded Zhuge Liang's advice and managed to increase the strength of his forces. From then on, he saw Zhuge Liang as a great talent and started treating him like an honoured guest.

Pei Songzhi commented that the Weilue and Jiuzhou Chunqiu accounts contradict Zhuge Liang's own statement in the Chu Shi Biao, which says: "(Liu Bei) visited me thrice in the thatched cottage, (and) consulted me on the affairs of our time." He noted that the Chu Shi Biao obviously showed that Zhuge Liang did not visit Liu Bei first.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms gives a romanticised account, spanning two chapters, of how Liu Bei met Zhuge Liang. After Xu Shu recommends Zhuge Liang to him, Liu Bei travels to Longzhong with his sworn brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to find Zhuge Liang. When they reach Zhuge Liang's house (described as a "thatched cottage" 茅廬), a servant tells them them that his master is out. Liu Bei then asks the servant to pass a message to Zhuge Liang that Liu Bei came to find him. Later during winter, Liu Bei and his sworn brothers brave heavy snowfall and travel to Longzhong again. Along the way, they meet Zhuge Liang's friends. This time, the servant leads them to his "master", who turns out to be Zhuge Liang's younger brother, Zhuge Jun. Just as they are about to leave, Liu Bei sees an older man approaching and thinks he is Zhuge Liang, but the man introduces himself as Huang Chengyan, Zhuge Liang's father-in-law. When spring arrives, Liu Bei decides to visit Zhuge Liang again, much to the annoyance of his sworn brothers. On this third occasion, Zhuge Liang is at home but is asleep. Liu Bei waits patiently for hours until Zhuge Liang wakes up.

Longzhong Plan

Further information: Longzhong Plan

During their private meeting, Liu Bei sought Zhuge Liang's advice on how to compete with the powerful warlords and revive the declining Han dynasty. In response, Zhuge Liang presented his Longzhong Plan, which envisaged a tripartite division of China between the domains of Liu Bei, Cao Cao and Sun Quan. According to the plan, Liu Bei should seize control of Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) and Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) from their respective governors, Liu Biao and Liu Zhang, and establish a solid foothold in southern and western China. Liu Bei would then form an alliance with Sun Quan, who ruled eastern China, and wage war against Cao Cao, who controlled northern China and the political centre of the Han dynasty in central China.

After the meeting, Liu Bei became very close to Zhuge Liang and spent much time with him – much to Guan Yu and Zhang Fei's unhappiness. Liu Bei explained to them, "Now that I have Kongming, I am like a fish that has found water. I hope you'll stop making unpleasant remarks." Guan Yu and Zhang Fei then stopped complaining.

Formation of the Sun–Liu alliance

Liu Bei's evacuation to Xiakou

See also: Battle of Changban

In the autumn of 208, shortly before Liu Biao's death, Cao Cao led his forces on a southern campaign to conquer Jing Province. When Cao Cao's forces reached Jing Province's capital Xiangyang, Liu Biao's younger son Liu Cong, who had succeeded his father as the Governor of Jing Province, surrendered to Cao Cao. Upon receiving news of Liu Cong's surrender, Liu Bei immediately evacuated his base in Fancheng (樊城; present-day Fancheng District, Xiangyang, Hubei) and led thousands of his followers, both military and civilian, on a journey to Xiakou (夏口; in present-day Wuhan, Hubei) to join Liu Biao's elder son, Liu Biao. Along the way, Cao Cao's forces caught up with them and defeated them at the Battle of Changban. When they reached Xiakou safely, Liu Bei sent Zhuge Liang as his representative to meet Sun Quan to discuss a Sun–Liu alliance against Cao Cao.

Zhuge Liang's meeting with Sun Quan

See also: Zhou Yu § Advising Sun Quan to go to war with Cao Cao, and Lu Su § Formation of the Sun–Liu alliance

Around the time, Sun Quan was in Chaisang (柴桑; southwest of present-day Jiujiang, Jiangxi) and had been closely observing the developments in Jing Province. When Zhuge Liang met Sun Quan, he said:

"The Empire is in chaos. General, you raised an army and occupied Jiangdong, while (Liu Bei) is gathering forces at the south of the Han River. Both of you are preparing to compete with Cao Cao for control over the Empire. As of now, Cao Cao has eliminated internal threats, more or less stabilised northern China, and led his forces south to occupy Jing Province. The Empire trembles at his might. As the saying goes, 'a hero has no opportunity to show off his abilities'; this is why (Liu Bei) has fled here. I hope that you, General, will carefully assess your strengths and decide your next course of action. If you decide to lead your forces from the Wu and Yue regions to resist central China, you should quickly break ties (with Cao Cao). If you can't resist him, why don't you put down your weapons, remove your armour, and prepare to surrender to the north? General, although on the outside you seem ready to pledge allegiance to Cao Cao, you're actually very undecided on the inside. If you can't be decisive at such a critical moment, doom will befall you very soon!"

When Sun Quan asked him why Liu Bei did not surrender to Cao Cao, Zhuge Liang replied:

"Tian Heng was nothing more than a mere warrior from Qi, yet he remained faithful and refused to surrender. Shouldn't we expect more from (Liu Bei), a descendant of the imperial clan of the great Han Empire? His heroism is well-known throughout the Empire and everyone admires him, just like the many rivers eventually leading to the sea. If he fails in his noble mission, that is due to the will of Heaven! Why would he surrender to Cao Cao?"

An enraged Sun Quan then said that he would not allow anyone (but himself) to rule the territories and people in Wu. When he asked Zhuge Liang how Liu Bei could expect to resist Cao Cao, given his recent defeat at Changban, Zhuge Liang replied:

"(Liu Bei's) forces may have suffered a defeat at Changban, but now many of his men who were scattered during the battle are returning to him, along with the 10,000 marine troops under Guan Yu. Liu Qi has managed to raise an army of at least 10,000 in Jiangxia. Cao Cao and his forces have come a long way and are exhausted. I heard that his lightly-armed cavalry travelled over 300 li in one night to catch up with (Liu Bei) and attack him. This fits the saying: 'when an arrow fired from a powerful bow reaches its limit, it can't even penetrate a thin piece of cloth made in Lu.' Such a battle should be avoided according to military strategy, which also says that (fighting such a battle) 'will definitely result in defeat for the commander'. The northerners are also not familiar with naval warfare. Although the people in Jing Province have surrendered to Cao Cao, many of them were pressured into doing so and might not be truly loyal to him. Now, if you, General, can send your best officers to lead thousands of troops and work together with (Liu Bei), you'll definitely be able to defeat Cao Cao's forces. Once Cao Cao loses, he'll retreat to the north. By then, Jing Province and Wu will be able to become more powerful, and the tripartite division of the Empire will be complete. The crucial moment between success and failure lies with your decision today."

Zhang Zhao's recommendation

The Yuanzi recorded that when Zhuge Liang was in Chaisang, Zhang Zhao recommended him to switch allegiance from Liu Bei to Sun Quan, but Zhuge Liang refused. When Zhang Zhao asked him why, Zhuge Liang said, "[Sun Quan] is a good leader of men. However, from what I observe about his character, he will make good use of my abilities but not to their fullest extent. That is why I don't want to serve under him."

Pei Songzhi noted Zhuge Liang's special and sui generis relationship with Liu Bei, and pointed out that Zhuge Liang's loyalty towards Liu Bei was so firm that nothing would make him switch allegiance to Sun Quan – not even if Sun Quan could make full use of his abilities. Pei Songzhi then cited a similar example of how Guan Yu, during his brief service under Cao Cao, maintained unwavering loyalty towards Liu Bei even though Cao Cao treated him very generously.

Battle of Red Cliffs

Further information: Battle of Red Cliffs and Battle of Jiangling (208)

Sun Quan was pleased to hear Zhuge Liang's plan for a Sun–Liu alliance. He ordered Zhou Yu, Cheng Pu, Lu Su and others to lead 30,000 troops to join Liu Bei in resisting Cao Cao's invasion. In the winter of 208, the allied forces of Liu Bei and Sun Quan scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao's forces at the Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao retreated to Ye (鄴; in present-day Handan, Hebei) after his defeat.

Service in southern Jing Province

Following the Battle of Red Cliffs, Liu Bei nominated Liu Qi as the Inspector of Jing Province and sent his forces to conquer the four commanderies in southern Jing Province: Wuling (武陵; around present-day Changde, Hunan), Changsha, Guiyang (桂陽; around present-day Chenzhou, Hunan) and Lingling (零陵; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan). The administrators of the four commanderies surrendered to him. After Liu Qi died in 209, acting on Lu Su's advice, Sun Quan agreed to "lend" the territories in Jing Province to Liu Bei and nominate him to succeed Liu Qi as the Governor of Jing Province.

After assuming governorship of southern Jing Province in 209, Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang as Military Adviser General of the Household (軍師中郎將) and put him in charge of collecting tax revenue from Lingling, Guiyang and Changsha commanderies for his military forces. During this time, Zhuge Liang was stationed in Linzheng County (臨烝縣; present-day Hengyang, Hunan) in Changsha Commandery.

Conquest of Yi Province

Main article: Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province

In 211, Liu Zhang, the Governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), invited Liu Bei to lead troops into Yi Province to assist him in countering his rival, Zhang Lu, in Hanzhong Commandery. While Liu Bei was away in Jing Province, Zhuge Liang remained behind with Guan Yu and others to guard Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province.

When war broke out between Liu Bei and Liu Zhang in 212, Zhuge Liang, along with Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun and others, led troops from Jing Province into Yi Province to reinforce Liu Bei. They conquered many counties and commanderies along the way and eventually joined Liu Bei in surrounding Chengdu, the capital of Yi Province.

After Liu Zhang surrendered and relinquished control over Yi Province to Liu Bei in 214, Zhuge Liang was appointed as Military Adviser General (軍師將軍) and made a staff member of the office of the General of the Left (左將軍), the nominal appointment Liu Bei held at the time. Whenever Liu Bei went on military campaigns, Zhuge Liang remained behind to guard Chengdu and ensured that the city was well-stocked with supplies and well-defended.

Liu Bei's coronation

In late 220, some months after Cao Cao's death, his son and successor Cao Pi usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, ended the Eastern Han dynasty, and established the Cao Wei (or Wei) state with himself as the new emperor. This event marked the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in China. In the following year, Liu Bei's followers urged him to declare himself emperor to challenge Cao Pi's legitimacy, but Liu Bei refused.

Zhuge Liang said:

"In the past, when Wu Han, Geng Yan and others first urged Emperor Guangwu to declare himself emperor, Emperor Guangwu declined a total of four times. Geng Chun then told him: 'All the heroes in the Empire look up to you and hope that by following your lead, they will be able to find what they seek. If you don't heed everyone's advice, everyone will seek a new lord and no one will want to follow you anymore.' Emperor Guangwu thought that Geng Chun's words made sense, so he agreed to everyone's wishes and became emperor. As of now, Cao Pi has usurped the Han throne and the Empire lacks a (legitimate) ruler. My King, you're a descendant of the Liu clan and you have imperial blood in you, so it will be legitimate for you to be the Emperor. All your subjects have followed you for a long time and undergone numerous hardships in the hope that they will be able to make achievements like those described by Geng Chun."

In 221, after Liu Bei declared himself emperor and established the state of Shu Han, he appointed Zhuge Liang as his Imperial Chancellor (丞相) and issued an imperial edict as follows:

"I inherited the throne because of a misfortune in my family. I will do my best, refrain from indulgences, and always have the people's interests in mind; I only fear that I cannot bring peace to the people. Alas! (Zhuge) Liang, the Imperial Chancellor, should do his best to understand my well-meaning intentions, tirelessly assist me in overcoming my weaknesses and spreading benevolence, so as to bring light to the Empire. Please strive to do your best!"

Zhuge Liang also held the additional appointment of Supervisor of the Masters of Writing (錄尚書事), i.e., the supervisor of the imperial secretariat, and had full acting imperial authority. After Zhang Fei's death in mid 221, Zhuge Liang took on an additional appointment as Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隷校尉), which Zhang Fei previously held.

Appointment as regent

Following his defeat at the Battle of Xiaoting in 222, Liu Bei retreated to Yong'an County (永安縣; present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing) and became critically ill in early 223. He summoned Zhuge Liang from Chengdu and told him: "Sir, you're ten times more talented than Cao Pi. You'll definitely bring peace to the Empire and accomplish our great mission. If my son can be assisted, then assist him; if he turns out to be incompetent, then you may take over the throne."

With tears in his eyes, Zhuge Liang replied: "I'll do my utmost and serve with unwavering loyalty until death!" Liu Bei then instructed Liu Shan, his son and heir apparent, as follows: "When you work together with the Imperial Chancellor, you must treat him like your father." Liu Bei then named Zhuge Liang as regent for Liu Shan, and Li Yan as deputy regent. He died on 10 June 223 in Yong'an County.

Following Liu Bei's death, Liu Shan ascended the throne and succeeded his father as the emperor of Shu. After his coronation, Liu Shan enfeoffed Zhuge Liang as the Marquis of Wu District (武鄉侯) and created a personal staff to assist him. Later, Zhuge Liang assumed an additional appointment as Governor of Yi Province (益州牧). He personally oversaw all state affairs and made the final call on all policy decisions.

When rebellions broke out in the Nanzhong region of southern Shu, Zhuge Liang did not immediately take military action to suppress the rebellions because he thought it was not appropriate to do so in light of the recent death of Liu Bei. In late 223, he sent Deng Zhi as Shu's ambassador to Eastern Wu to make peace and rebuild the Wu–Shu alliance against Wei.

During his regency, Zhuge Liang set Shu's objective as the restoration of the Han dynasty, which, from his point of view, had been illegitimately replaced by the Wei state. He considered that if he were to launch a campaign against Wei, he would need to consolidate power and unify Shu under centralised control first.

Refusing to submit to Wei

Shortly after he became regent, he received letters from various Wei officials – including Hua Xin, Wang Lang, Chen Qun, Xu Zhi (許芝) and Zhuge Zhang (諸葛璋) – asking him to surrender to Wei and make Shu a vassal state under Wei. Instead of responding to any of the letters, he wrote a memo, called Zheng Yi (正議), as follows:

"In the past, Xiang Yu lacked virtue even though he dominated Huaxia and had the might of an emperor. His downfall has served as a cautionary tale for generations. Wei did not learn from this example and has followed in his footsteps. Even if (Cao Cao) were lucky enough to live long, his descendants cannot avoid their eventual doom. Many of those who asked me to surrender to Wei are already in their old age, yet they decide to serve an illegitimate ruler. This is just like how (Chen) Chong and (Sun) Song fawned on (Wang) Mang and supported him in usurping the throne, only to end up seeking their deaths. When Emperor Guangwu was conquering the Empire, he defeated an enemy force of 400,000 in the outskirts of Kunyang with only a few thousand men. This shows that numbers do not determine victory or defeat in a battle between good and evil. The cunning (Cao Cao) led an army of 100,000 to fight (Liu Bei) and attempted to save Zhang He at Yangping, yet he ended up retreating in failure, bringing shame upon his mighty army, and losing Hanzhong. Only then did he realise that the Divine Vessel is not something to be taken at one's pleasure. On the journey back, he fell sick and died. (Cao Pi) showed his arrogance, extravagance and evilness when he usurped the throne. Even if they (those who asked me to surrender to Wei) are as eloquent and persuasive as Su (Qin) and Zhang (Yi), they cannot besmirch the good name of Emperor Tang (Yao) and mischaracterise Yu. They will only be wasting ink. Righteous men and junzis will not do (what they are doing). The Military Commandments stated: 'One is invincible with an army of 10,000 men willing to die.' If, in the past, Xuanyuan can defeat his rivals and conquer the Empire with only a few tens of thousands of troops, then all the more we are invincible with our hundreds of thousands of troops and our position on the moral high ground."

Southern Campaign

Main article: Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign

Zhuge Liang wanted to personally lead the Shu forces on a southern campaign to the Nanzhong region to suppress the rebellions which erupted in 223, as well as to pacify and gain the allegiance of the Nanman tribes living there. Wang Lian, Zhuge Liang's chief clerk, strongly objected to his boss's participation in the campaign because it was too dangerous. He argued that given Zhuge Liang's important status in Shu, he should not undertake such a risky venture. However, Zhuge Liang insisted on personally leading the campaign as he was worried that none of the Shu generals was competent enough to deal with the rebels on his own. Ma Su, an adviser under Zhuge Liang, suggested that they focus on psychological warfare (i.e. winning the hearts of the people in Nanzhong) rather than conventional warfare, so as to prevent rebellions from breaking out again. Zhuge Liang readily accepted Ma Su's advice.

In the spring of 225, Zhuge Liang led the Shu forces on the southern campaign. They defeated the rebel leaders Yong Kai (雍闓), Gao Ding (高定) and Zhu Bao (朱褒), and pacified the three commanderies of Jianning (建寧; around present-day Qujing, Yunnan), Yuexi/Yuesui (越巂; around present-day Xichang, Sichuan) and Zangke (牂柯; around present-day Guiyang or Fuquan, Guizhou). After that, they turned their attention to Meng Huo, a local leader who supported the rebels. Zhuge Liang knew that Meng Huo was a popular and respected figure in Nanzhong among the Nanman and local Han Chinese, so he decided to let Meng Huo live. After capturing Meng Huo in battle, Zhuge Liang showed him around the Shu camp and asked him what he thought. Meng Huo replied, "Before this, I knew nothing about your army, which was why I lost. Now that you have shown me around your camp, I know the conditions of your army and will be able to win you easily." Zhuge Liang laughed, released him and allowed him to return for another battle. The same cycle repeated for a total of seven times. On the seventh time, Meng Huo surrendered and told Zhuge Liang, "Sir, you have shown me the might of Heaven. The people of the south will never rebel again." Zhuge Liang then led his forces towards Dian Lake in triumph. The Nanzhong region was basically pacified by the autumn of 225.

Before pulling out all Shu soldiers from the Nanzhong region, Zhuge Liang told Meng Huo and other local leaders that he only required them to pay tribute to the Shu government in the form of gold, silver, oxen, warhorses, etc. He also appointed locals such as Li Hui and Lü Kai to serve as the new commandery administrators, while the local leaders and tribal chiefs were allowed to continue governing their respective peoples and tribes. After the southern campaign, the Shu state became more prosperous as the Nanzhong region became a steady source of funding and supplies for the Shu military. Under Zhuge Liang's direction, the Shu military also started training soldiers, stockpiling weapons and resources, etc., in preparation for an upcoming campaign against their rival state, Wei.

Northern Expeditions

Main article: Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions

Submitting the Chu Shi Biao

Main article: Chu Shi Biao

In 227, Zhuge Liang ordered troops from throughout Shu to mobilise and assemble in Hanzhong Commandery in preparation for a large-scale military campaign against Shu's rival state, Wei. Before leaving, he wrote a memorial, called Chu Shi Biao (literally "memorial on the case to go to war"), and submitted it to the Shu emperor Liu Shan. Among other things, the memorial contained Zhuge Liang's reasons for the campaign against Wei and his personal advice to Liu Shan on governance issues. After Liu Shan approved, Zhuge Liang ordered the Shu forces to garrison at Mianyang (沔陽; present-day Mian County, Shaanxi).

Tianshui revolts and Battle of Jieting

Main articles: Tianshui revolts and Battle of Jieting

In the spring of 228, Zhuge Liang ordered Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi to lead a detachment of troops to Ji Valley (箕谷) and pretend to attack Mei County (郿縣; southeast of present-day Fufeng County, Shaanxi) via Xie Valley (斜谷). Their mission was to distract and hold the Wei forces' attention, while Zhuge Liang led the Shu main army to attack Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu). Upon reaching Mount Qi, Zhuge Liang deployed his troops in orderly formations and directed them with clear and strict commands. Three Wei-controlled commanderies – Nan'an (南安; around present-day Longxi County, Gansu), Tianshui and Anding (安定; around present-day Zhenyuan County, Gansu) – responded to the invasion by defecting to the Shu side. News of the Shu invasion sent shockwaves throughout the Guanzhong region.

The Wei government was stunned when they learnt of the Shu invasion and totally unprepared for it because they had lowered their guard against Shu after Liu Bei's death in 223 and had not heard anything from Shu since then. They were even more fearful and shocked when they heard of the three commanderies' defection. In response to the Shu invasion, the Wei emperor Cao Rui moved from Luoyang, the Wei imperial capital, to Chang'an to oversee the defences in the Guanzhong region and provide backup. He sent Zhang He to attack Zhuge Liang at Mount Qi, and Cao Zhen to attack Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi at Ji Valley.

Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi lost to Cao Zhen at the battle in Ji Valley because Zhuge Liang had given them command of the weaker soldiers while he led the better troops to attack Mount Qi. Nevertheless, Zhao Yun managed to rally his men into putting up a firm defence as they retreated, thus minimising their losses. In the meantime at Mount Qi, Zhuge Liang had put Ma Su in charge of the vanguard force to engage the enemy. At Jieting (街亭; or Jie Village, located east of present-day Qin'an County, Gansu), Ma Su not only went against Zhuge Liang's instructions, but also made the wrong moves, resulting in the Shu vanguard suffering a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Wei forces under Zhang He. Zhang He also seized the opportunity to attack and reclaim the three commanderies for Wei.

Upon learning of the Shu defeats at Ji Valley and Jieting, Zhuge Liang pulled back the Shu forces and retreated to Hanzhong Commandery, where he resettled the few thousand families they captured in the Wei-controlled Xi County (西縣; present-day Li County, Gansu) during the campaign. This happened in the late spring of 228. After executing Ma Su for disobeying orders and to appease public anger, he analysed why the campaign failed and told his subordinates:

"Our armies at Mount Qi and Ji Valley together were superior to the enemy in numbers, yet we lost the battles. This wasn't because we had insufficient troops, but rather, it was due to one man. Now, we should reduce the number of troops and officers, instil greater discipline in the military, and reflect on our mistakes, so as to adapt and prepare ourselves for the future. If we can't do this, it won't be helpful even if we have more troops! From today, please raise whatever concerns you may have about the State, and point out my mistakes and flaws. We can then be more decisive and be able to defeat the enemy and move closer towards victory and success."

He also wrote a memorial to Liu Shan, taking full responsibility for the Shu defeats at Jieting and Ji Valley, acknowledging his mistakes and failure in judgment, and requesting to be demoted by three grades as punishment. Liu Shan approved and symbolically demoted him from Imperial Chancellor to General of the Right (右將軍), but allowed him to remain as acting Imperial Chancellor and continue performing the same duties as he did before.

Siege of Chencang

Main article: Siege of Chencang

Between late spring and early winter of 228, Zhuge Liang directed his efforts towards reorganising the Shu military, strengthening discipline, and training the troops in preparation for another campaign. During this time, he received news that Shu's ally state, Wu, had defeated Wei at the Battle of Shiting around September 228. From this, he deduced that the Wei defences in the Guanzhong region must be weaker because Wei had mobilised its best troops to the eastern front to fight Wu.

In December 228, Zhuge Liang allegedly wrote a second Chu Shi Biao to the Shu emperor Liu Shan to urge war against Wei. However, historians such as Qian Dazhao (錢大昭) have cast doubts on the authenticity of the second Chu Shi Biao and argued that it is falsely attributed to Zhuge Liang. Among other discrepancies, the second Chu Shi Biao differs sharply from the first Chu Shi Biao in tone, and already mentions Zhao Yun's death when the Sanguozhi recorded that he died in 229.

In the winter of 228–229, Zhuge Liang launched the second Northern Expedition and led the Shu forces out of San Pass (located north of the Qin Mountains to the south of present-day Baoji, Shaanxi) to attack the Wei fortress at Chencang (陳倉; east of present-day Baoji, Shaanxi). Before the campaign, Zhuge Liang already knew that Chencang was heavily fortified and difficult to capture, so when he showed up he was surprised to see that the fortress was very well-defended. In fact, after the first Shu invasion, the Wei general Cao Zhen had predicted that Zhuge Liang would attack Chencang so he put Hao Zhao, a Wei general with a fierce reputation in the Guanzhong region, in charge of defending Chencang and strengthening its defences.

Zhuge Liang first ordered his troops to surround Chencang, then sent Jin Xiang (靳詳), an old friend of Hao Zhao, to persuade Hao Zhao to surrender. Hao Zhao refused twice. Although Hao Zhao had only 1,000 men with him to defend Chencang, he successfully held his ground against the Shu invaders. In the subsequent 20 days of siege, Zhuge Liang used an array of tactics to attack Chencang – siege ladders, battering rams, siege towers and underground tunnels – but Hao Zhao successfully countered each of them in turn. After failing to outwit Hao Zhao and take Chencang, and after learning that Wei reinforcements were approaching, Zhuge Liang decided to pull back his troops and return to base. Wang Shuang, a Wei officer, led his men to attack the retreating Shu forces, but was killed in an ambush laid by Zhuge Liang.

Battle of Jianwei

Main article: Battle of Jianwei

In the spring of 229, Zhuge Liang launched the third Northern Expedition and ordered Chen Shi to lead Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Wudu (武都; around present-day Cheng County, Gansu) and Yinping (陰平; present-day Wen County, Gansu) commanderies. The Wei general Guo Huai led his troops to resist Chen Shi. He retreated when he heard that Zhuge Liang had led a Shu army to Jianwei (建威; in present-day Longnan, Gansu). The Shu forces then conquered Wudu and Yinping commanderies.

When Zhuge Liang returned from the campaign, Liu Shan issued an imperial decree to congratulate him on his successes in defeating Wang Shuang during the second Northern Expedition and capturing Wudu and Yinping commanderies during the third Northern Expedition. He also restored Zhuge Liang to the position of Imperial Chancellor (丞相).

Congratulating Sun Quan on becoming emperor

Around May 229, Sun Quan, the ruler of Shu's ally state Wu, declared himself emperor and put himself on par with Liu Shan of Shu. When the news reached the Shu imperial court, many officials were outraged as they thought that Sun Quan had no right to be emperor, and so they urged the Shu government to break ties with Wu. Although Zhuge Liang agreed that Sun Quan lacked legitimacy, he considered that the Wu–Shu alliance was vital to Shu's survival and long-term interests because they needed Wu to help them keep Wei occupied in the east while they attacked Wei in the west. After concluding that Shu should maintain the Wu–Shu alliance and refrain from criticising Sun Quan, he sent Chen Zhen on a diplomatic mission to Wu to recognise Sun Quan's claim to the throne and congratulate him.

Battle of Mount Qi

Main article: Battle of Mount Qi

In 230, Zhuge Liang launched the fourth Northern Expedition and attacked Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu) again. He used the wooden ox, a mechanical device he invented, to transport food supplies to the frontline. The Shu forces attacked Tianshui Commandery and surrounded Mount Qi, which was defended by the Wei officers Jia Si (賈嗣) and Wei Ping (魏平). At Mount Qi, Zhuge Liang managed to convince Kebineng, a Xianbei tribal leader, to support Shu in the war against Wei. Kebineng went to Beidi Commandery (北地郡; around present-day central Shaanxi) and rallied the locals to support Shu.

At the time, as Cao Zhen, the Grand Marshal of Wei, was ill, the Wei emperor Cao Rui ordered the general Sima Yi to move to Chang'an (present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi) to supervise the Wei defences in the Guanzhong region against the Shu invasion. After making preparations for battle, Sima Yi, with Zhang He, Fei Yao, Dai Ling (戴陵) and Guo Huai serving as his subordinates, led Wei forces to Yumi County (隃麋縣; east of present-day Qianyang County, Shaanxi) and stationed there. He then left Fei Yao and Dai Ling with 4,000 troops to guard Shanggui County (上邽縣; in present-day Tianshui, Gansu), while he led the others to Mount Qi to help Jia Si and Wei Ping.

When Zhuge Liang learnt of the Wei forces' approach, he split his forces into two groups – one group to remain at Mount Qi while he led the other group to attack Shanggui County. He defeated Guo Huai, Fei Yao and Dai Ling in battle and ordered his troops to collect the harvest in Shanggui County. In response, Sima Yi turned back from Mount Qi, headed to Shanggui County, and reached there within two days. By then, Zhuge Liang and his men had finished harvesting the wheat and were preparing to leave. Zhuge Liang encountered Sima Yi at Hanyang (漢陽) to the east of Shanggui County, but they did not engage in battle: Zhuge Liang ordered his troops to make use of the terrain and get into defensive positions; Sima Yi ordered his troops to get into formation, while sending Niu Jin to lead a lightly armed cavalry detachment to Mount Qi. The standoff ended when Zhuge Liang and the Shu forces retreated to Lucheng (鹵城), took control of the hills in the north and south, and used the river as a natural barrier.

Although his subordinates repeatedly urged him to attack the enemy, Sima Yi was hesitant to do so after seeing the layout of the Shu camps in the hills. However, he eventually relented when Jia Si and Wei Ping mocked him and said he would become a laughing stock if he refused to attack. Sima Yi then sent Zhang He to attack the Shu camp in the south, guarded by Wang Ping, while he led the others to attack Lucheng head-on. In response, Zhuge Liang ordered Wei Yan, Wu Ban and Gao Xiang to lead troops to engage the enemy outside Lucheng. The Wei army lost the battle, along with 3,000 troops and some equipment.

Despite his victory, Zhuge Liang could not make use of the momentum to launch a major offensive on the enemy because his army was running low on supplies. Sima Yi launched another attack on the Shu camps and succeeded in breaking through Zhuge Liang's defences. The Book of Jin recorded that as Zhuge Liang and the Shu army retreated under the cover of night, Sima Yi led his forces in pursuit and inflicted over 10,000 casualties on the enemy. Zhang He led his troops to attack the retreating Shu forces but fell into an ambush and lost his life.

Battle of Wuzhang Plains

Main article: Battle of Wuzhang Plains

In the spring of 234, Zhuge Liang led more than 100,000 Shu troops out of Xie Valley (斜谷) and camped at the Wuzhang Plains on the south bank of the Wei River near Mei County (郿縣; southeast of present-day Fufeng County, Shaanxi). Aside from using the flowing horse to transport food supplies to the frontline, he implemented a tuntian plan by ordering his troops to grow crops alongside civilians at the south bank of the Wei River. He also forbid his troops from taking the civilians' crops.

In response to the Shu invasion, the Wei general Sima Yi led his forces and another 20,000 reinforcements to the Wuzhang Plains to engage the enemy. After an initial skirmish and a night raid on the Shu camp, Sima Yi received orders from the Wei emperor Cao Rui to hold his ground and refrain from engaging the Shu forces. The battle became a stalemate. During this time, Zhuge Liang made several attempts to lure Sima Yi to attack him. On one occasion, he sent women's ornaments to Sima Yi to taunt him. An apparently angry Sima Yi sought permission from Cao Rui to attack the enemy, but was denied. Cao Rui even sent Xin Pi as his special representative to the frontline to ensure that Sima Yi followed orders and remained in camp. Zhuge Liang knew that Sima Yi was pretending to be angry because he wanted to show the Wei soldiers that he would not put up with Zhuge Liang's taunting, and to ensure that his men were ready for battle.

During the stalemate, when Zhuge Liang sent a messenger to meet Sima Yi, Sima Yi asked the messenger about Zhuge Liang's daily routine and living conditions. The messenger said that Zhuge Liang consumed three to four sheng of grain a day and that he micromanaged almost everything, except trivial issues like punishments for minor offences. After hearing this, Sima Yi remarked, "How can Zhuge Kongming expect to last long? He's going to die soon."

Death and post-mortem events

See also: Li Fu (Three Kingdoms) § At Zhuge Liang's deathbed

The stalemate at the Wuzhang Plains lasted for over 100 days. Sometime between 11 September and 10 October 234, Zhuge Liang became critically ill and died in camp. He was 54 (by East Asian age reckoning) at the time of his death.

The Jin Yang Qiu (晉陽秋) recorded the following account:

A glowing red meteorite fell from the sky along the northeast-to-southwest direction towards (Zhuge) Liang's camp, bounced off the ground and landed again three times, expanding in size when it bounced off and shrinking in size as it landed. (Zhuge) Liang died shortly after.

The Wei Shu (魏書) and Han Jin Chunqiu (漢晉春秋) gave different accounts of where Zhuge Liang died. The former recorded that Zhuge Liang vomited blood in frustration when his army ran out of supplies during the stalemate and he ordered his troops to burn down their camp and retreat into a valley, where he fell sick and died. The latter recorded that he died in the residence of a certain Guo family. In his annotations to Zhuge Liang's biography, Pei Songzhi pointed out that the Wei Shu and Han Jin Chunqiu accounts were wrong, and that Zhuge Liang actually died in camp at the Wuzhang Plains. He also rebutted the Wei Shu account as follows:

"[...] It was unclear from the situation (at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains) which side was winning and which side was losing. (The Wei Shu) was exaggerating when it said that (Zhuge) Liang vomited blood. Given Kongming's brilliance, was it likely for him to vomit blood because of Zhongda? This exaggeration originated from a note written by Emperor Yuan of Jin which said '(Zhuge) Liang lost the battle and vomited blood'. The reason why (the Wei Shu) said that Zhuge Liang died in a valley was because the Shu army only released news of Zhuge Liang's death after they entered the valley."

When Sima Yi heard from civilians that Zhuge Liang had died from illness and the Shu army had burnt down their camp and retreated, he led his troops in pursuit and caught up with them. The Shu forces, on Yang Yi and Jiang Wei's command, turned around and readied themselves for battle. Sima Yi pulled back his troops and retreated. Some days later, while surveying the remains of the Shu camp, Sima Yi remarked, "What a genius he was!" Based on his observations that the Shu army made a hasty retreat, he concluded that Zhuge Liang had indeed died, so he led his troops in pursuit again. When Sima Yi reached Chi'an (赤岸), he asked the civilians living there about Zhuge Liang and heard that there was a recent popular saying: "A dead Zhuge (Liang) scares away a living Zhongda" He laughed and said, "I can predict the thoughts of the living but I can't predict the dead's."

Burial and posthumous honours

Before his death, Zhuge Liang said that he wanted to be buried as simply as possible in Mount Dingjun (in present-day Mian County, Hanzhong, Shaanxi): his tomb should be just large enough for his coffin to fit in; he was to be dressed in the clothes he wore when he died; he did not need to be buried with any decorative objects or ornaments. The Shu emperor Liu Shan issued an imperial edict to mourn and eulogise Zhuge Liang, as well as to confer on him the posthumous title "Marquis Zhongwu" (忠武侯; "loyal martial marquis").

Zhuge Liang once wrote a memorial to Liu Shan as follows and kept his promise until his death:

"(I have) 800 mulberry trees and 15 qing of farmland in Chengdu, and my family have more than enough to feed and clothe themselves. When I am away (from Chengdu) on assignment, I do not incur any excess expenses. I depend solely on my official salary for my personal expenses. I do not run any private enterprises to generate additional income. If I have any excess silk and wealth at the time of my death, I would have let Your Majesty down."

In the spring of 263, Liu Shan ordered a memorial temple for Zhuge Liang to be built in Mianyang County (沔陽縣; present-day Mian County, Shaanxi). Initially, when Zhuge Liang died in 234, many people wanted the Shu government to build memorial temple to honour him. However, after some discussion, the government decided not to because it was not in accordance with Confucian rules of propriety. With no official channels to worship Zhuge Liang, the people took to holding their own private memorial services for Zhuge Liang on special occasions. Some time later, some people pointed out that it was appropriate to build a memorial temple for Zhuge Liang in Chengdu, but the Shu emperor Liu Shan refused. Two officials, Xi Long (習隆) and Xiang Chong, then wrote a memorial to Liu Shan and managed to convince him to build the memorial temple in Mianyang County.

In the autumn of 263, during the Wei invasion of Shu, the Wei general Zhong Hui passed by Zhuge Liang's memorial temple in Mianyang County along the way and paid his respects there. He also ordered his troops to refrain from farming and logging anywhere near Zhuge Liang's tomb at Mount Dingjun.

Guo Chong's five anecdotes

The Shu Ji (蜀記), by Wang Yin (王隱), recorded that sometime in the early Jin dynasty, Sima Jun (司馬駿; 232–286), the Prince of Fufeng (扶風王), once had a discussion about Zhuge Liang with his subordinates Liu Bao (劉寶), Huan Xi (桓隰) and others. Many of them brought up negative points about Zhuge Liang: making a bad choice when he chose to serve under Liu Bei; creating unnecessary burden and stress for the people of Shu; being overly ambitious; and lacking awareness about the limits of his strengths and abilities. However, there was one Guo Chong (郭沖/郭冲) who dissented and argued that Zhuge Liang's brilliance and wisdom exceeded that of Guan Zhong and Yan Ying. He then shared five anecdotes about Zhuge Liang which he claimed nobody had heard of. Liu Bao, Huan Xi and the others fell silent after hearing the five anecdotes. Sima Jun even generously endorsed the five anecdotes by Guo Chong.

Pei Songzhi, when annotating Zhuge Liang's official biography in the Sanguozhi, found the five anecdotes unreliable and questionable, but he still added them into Zhuge Liang's biography and pointed out the problems in each of them. In his concluding remarks, Pei Songzhi noted that the fourth-century historians Sun Sheng and Xi Zuochi, given their attention to detail, most probably came across Guo Chong's five anecdotes while doing research on the Three Kingdoms period. He surmised that Sun Sheng and Xi Zuochi probably omitted the anecdotes in their writings because they, like him, also found the anecdotes unreliable and questionable.

Harsh laws

In the first anecdote, Guo Chong claimed that Zhuge Liang incurred much resentment from the people when he implemented harsh and draconian laws in Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing). Fa Zheng, an adviser to Liu Bei, tried to dissuade Zhuge Liang from doing so as he believed that the harsh and draconian laws would drive a wedge between the people of Yi Province and Liu Bei's government. He further pointed out that the government lacked popular support and political legitimacy at the time because some people saw Liu Bei as a foreign invader who occupied Yi Province by military force. Fa Zheng then urged Zhuge Liang to relax the laws and give the people some "breathing space". In response, Zhuge Liang argued that harsh laws were necessary to restore law and order in Yi Province and help Liu Bei's government consolidate its control over the territories and people. He blamed Liu Yan's 'soft' rule and Liu Zhang's incompetence for allowing corruption and decadence to become deeply entrenched in Yi Province. He also argued that the best way to set things right was to restore law and order and to regulate the distribution of honours and privileges among the population.

Pei Songzhi pointed out three problems in this anecdote. First, when Fa Zheng and Liu Bei were still alive, Zhuge Liang was never in a position powerful enough for him to implement such a policy; he would have to be the Governor of Yi Province (益州牧) to do so, but he only became Governor of Yi Province (in addition to other appointments) during Liu Shan's reign. Second, as Zhuge Liang is known for being a respectful, humble and faithful subject, it seemed totally out of place for him to advocate such a policy and make such a crude response to Fa Zheng. Third, good governance, which Zhuge Liang is known for, is not normally associated with harsh laws.

Assassination attempt on Liu Bei

In the second anecdote, Guo Chong claimed that Cao Cao once sent an assassin to kill Liu Bei. When the assassin first met Liu Bei, he could only speak to Liu Bei from a distance, so he thought of a way to attract Liu Bei's attention and get up close. He started analysing the situation in Cao Cao's domain and presented ideas to Liu Bei on how to attack it. Liu Bei found his ideas interesting and asked him to come closer. Just then, Zhuge Liang came into the meeting room and caused the assassin to panic. He noticed the assassin's facial expression and found him suspicious. The assassin then excused himself, saying that he needed to use the latrine, Liu Bei told Zhuge Liang, "I found an extraordinary man who can be a good assistant to you." When Zhuge Liang asked who it was, Liu Bei said, "The man who just went to the latrine." Zhuge Liang took a deep breath and said, "Just now, I saw a look of fear and panic on his face. His avoidance of eye contact and his body language show that he has something evil on his mind. He must be an assassin sent by Cao Cao." Liu Bei immediately ordered the assassin's arrest but the assassin had already fled.

Pei Songzhi pointed out the problems in this anecdote. If this incident really happened, the assassin must be a great talent to be able to attract Liu Bei's attention and, in Liu Bei's opinion, worthy enough to serve as an assistant to Zhuge Liang. However, this was unlikely because assassins were typically rough and boorish men ready to sacrifice their lives to accomplish their mission. Besides, it did not make much sense for a man of such talent to be an assassin when he could be better off as an adviser to any of the great warlords. Moreover, as Cao Cao was known for respecting and cherishing talents, it was unlikely that he would willingly sacrifice someone of such talent by sending him on a risky mission. Furthermore, given the significance of this incident, it should be recorded in history, but there is no mention of it in the official histories.

Empty Fort Strategy

Main article: Empty Fort Strategy § Historicity

Rejecting compliments

In the fourth anecdote, Guo Chong claimed that when Zhuge Liang returned to Chengdu after the first Northern Expedition, he received many compliments from his colleagues for his successes in capturing a few thousand Wei families and making Jiang Wei defect to Shu. However, to their surprise, Zhuge Liang solemnly replied, "All the people under Heaven are people of the Han Empire. Now, the Han Empire isn't revived yet and the people are still suffering from war. It will be my fault even if only one person dies due to war. I dare not accept compliments built on people's miseries." The people of Shu then realised that his goal was to vanquish Wei rather than simply expanding Shu's borders through conquests.

Pei Songzhi pointed out that Zhuge Liang's goal of achieving a complete victory over Wei was already well known before he went on the first Northern Expedition, so it seemed very odd for Guo Chong to say that the people of Shu only realised it after Zhuge Liang came back from the first Northern Expedition. He also noted that the first Northern Expedition was an overall failure so the "successes" mentioned in this anecdote neither made sense nor were worthy of compliments. The reasons he gave were as such: Shu lost two battles against Wei in the first Northern Expedition and ultimately failed to conquer the three commanderies; Wei had nothing to lose from the defection of Jiang Wei, who at the time was a relative nobody; and the capture of the few thousand Wei families was insufficient to make up for the casualties the Shu forces suffered at Jieting and Ji Valley.

Earning the trust of soldiers

In the fifth anecdote, Guo Chong claimed that during the fourth Northern Expedition, when Zhuge Liang led Shu forces to attack Mount Qi, the Wei emperor Cao Rui decided to launch a counterattack on Shu, so he personally led his forces to Chang'an. He then ordered Sima Yi and Zhang He to lead 300,000 elite Wei soldiers from Yong and Liang provinces on a covert operation deep into Shu territory and launch a stealth attack on Jiange (劍閣; in present-day Jiange County, Sichuan), a strategic mountain pass. Around the time, Zhuge Liang had set up a rotating shift system, in which at any time 20 percent of his troops (about 80,000 men) would be stationed at Mount Qi, while the remaining 80 percent would remain behind. As the Wei forces approached Mount Qi and prepared to attack the Shu positions, Zhuge Liang's subordinates urged him to stop the rotating shift system and concentrate all the Shu forces together to resist the numerically superior Wei forces. Zhuge Liang replied, "When I lead the troops into battle, I operate on the basis of trust. Even the ancients felt it was a shame for one to betray others' trust in him in order to achieve his goals. The soldiers who are due to return home can pack up their belongings and prepare to leave. Their wives have been counting the days and looking forward to their husbands coming home. Even though we are in a difficult and dangerous situation now, we shouldn't break our earlier promise." When the homebound soldiers heard that they were allowed to go home, their morale shot up and they became more motivated to stay back and fight the Wei forces before going home. They talked among themselves and pledged to use their lives to repay Zhuge Liang's kindness. Later, during the battle, they fought fiercely and killed Zhang He and forced Sima Yi to retreat. Zhuge Liang won the battle because he successfully gained the trust of the Shu soldiers.

Pei Songzhi pointed out that this anecdote contradicted the accounts from historical records. During the fourth Northern Expedition, Cao Rui was indeed at Chang'an but he did not personally lead Wei forces into battle. As for the part about Cao Rui ordering Sima Yi and Zhang He to lead a 300,000-strong army to attack Jiange, Pei Songzhi argued that it never happened because it was extremely unlikely for such a large army to pass through the Guanzhong region, bypass Zhuge Liang's position at Mount Qi, and enter Shu territory completely undetected. He also found the part about the rotating shift system untrue because it was impossible for a Shu expeditionary force to enter Wei territory and remain there for so long, much less set up a rotating shift system.

Family and descendants

See also: Zhuge clan of Langya

Zhuge family tree

Zhuge Feng 諸葛豐 Shaoji 少季 Cai Feng 蔡諷 Pang Degong 龐德公 Zhuge Gui 諸葛珪 Jungong 君貢 Huang Chengyan 黃承彥 Lady Cai (name unknown) Zhang Zhao 張昭 Zibu 子布 Pang Shanmin 龐山民 Lady Zhuge (name unknown) Zhuge Jin 諸葛瑾 Ziyu 子瑜 Zhuge Jun 諸葛均 Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮 Kongming 孔明 Lady Huang (name unknown) Lady Zhuge (name unknown) Kuai Qi 蒯祺 Zhang Cheng 張承 Zhongsi 仲嗣 Lady Zhuge (name unknown) Zhuge Qiao 諸葛喬 Bosong 伯松 Zhuge Ke 諸葛恪 Yuanxun 元遜 Zhuge Rong 諸葛融 Shuchang 叔長 Zhuge Guo* 諸葛果 Zhuge Huai* 諸葛懷 Zhuge Zhan 諸葛瞻 Siyuan 思遠 Zhuge Pan 諸葛攀 Zhuge Chuo 諸葛綽 Zhuge Song 諸葛竦 Zhuge Jian 諸葛建 Zhuge Shang 諸葛尚 Zhuge Jing 諸葛京 Xingzong 行宗 Zhuge Zhi* 諸葛質 Zhuge Xian 諸葛顯

Spouse

Zhuge Liang married the daughter of Huang Chengyan, a reclusive scholar living south of the Han River. The Xiangyang Ji (襄陽記) recorded that Huang Chengyan once asked Zhuge Liang, "I heard you are looking for a wife. I have an ugly daughter with yellow hair and dark skin, but her talent matches yours." Zhuge Liang then married Huang Chengyan's daughter. At the time, there was a saying in their village: "Don't be like Kongming when you choose a wife. He ended up with [Huang Chengyan]'s ugly daughter." Although her name was not recorded in history, she is commonly referred to in popular culture by the name "Huang Yueying" (黃月英).

Children

• Zhuge Qiao (諸葛喬; 199-223), Zhuge Liang's nephew and adopted son. As Zhuge Liang initially had no son, he adopted Zhuge Qiao, the second son of his elder brother Zhuge Jin. Zhuge Qiao served as a military officer in Shu and died relatively early.
• Zhuge Zhan (諸葛瞻; 227–263), Zhuge Liang's first son. He served as a military general in Shu and married a daughter of the Shu emperor Liu Shan. He was killed in battle in 263 during the Wei invasion of Shu.
• Zhuge Huai (諸葛懷), Zhuge Liang's third son. He is mentioned only in the Zhuge Family Genealogy (諸葛氏譜) cited in the 1960 publication Collected Works of Zhuge Liang (諸葛亮集). In 269, during the Jin dynasty, Emperor Wu summoned the descendants of famous Han dynasty officials (e.g. Xiao He, Cao Shen) to the imperial court so that he could confer honorary titles on them. When Zhuge Liang's descendants did not show up, Emperor Wu sent his officials to find them. The officials found Zhuge Huai in Chengdu and brought him to Emperor Wu. Zhuge Huai declined the honour, saying that he was contented with the land and property he already owned at the time. Emperor Wu was pleased and he did not force Zhuge Huai to accept.
• Zhuge Guo (諸葛果), Zhuge Liang's daughter. She is mentioned only in the 1960 publication Collected Works of Zhuge Liang (諸葛亮集) and the Ming dynasty Daoist text Lidai Shenxian Tongjian (歷代神仙通鑑; Comprehensive Mirror on Immortals Through the Dynasties). Her father named her guo (果; literally "fulfil / realise") because he wanted her to learn Daoist magical arts and fulfil her destiny of becoming an immortal.

Grandchildren and great-grandchildren

• Zhuge Pan (諸葛攀), Zhuge Qiao's son. In 253, after Zhuge Ke (Zhuge Jin's first son) and his family were exterminated in a coup d'état in Eastern Wu, Zhuge Pan reverted from his adopted lineage (Zhuge Liang's) to his biological lineage (Zhuge Jin's) and went to Eastern Wu to continue Zhuge Jin's family line there.
• Zhuge Shang (諸葛尚; died 263), Zhuge Zhan's eldest son. He was killed in battle in 263 alongside his father during the Wei invasion of Shu.
• Zhuge Jing (諸葛京), Zhuge Zhan's second son. After the fall of Shu, he moved to Hedong Commandery in 264 together with Zhuge Pan's son, Zhuge Xian (諸葛顯), and later served as an official under the Jin dynasty.
• Zhuge Zhi (諸葛質), a son of Zhuge Zhan. He is mentioned only in the Zaji (雜記) cited in the 1960 publication Collected Works of Zhuge Liang (諸葛亮集). After the fall of Shu, Liu Xun (劉恂; a son of Liu Shan) was unwilling to accompany his father to Luoyang, so he sent Zhuge Zhi as a messenger to meet Meng Qiu (孟虬), Meng Huo's son, and seek permission to live with the Nanman tribes. Meng Qiu approved.

Others

• Zhuge Dan (諸葛誕; died 258), a cousin of Zhuge Liang, served in the state of Cao Wei as a high-ranking military general in the mid Three Kingdoms period. Between 257 and 258, he started a rebellion in Shouchun against the Wei regent Sima Zhao, but ended up being defeated and killed.
• Zhuge Ziqi (諸葛梓岐; born 20 August 1983), also known as Marie Zhuge, is a Hong Kong model who claims to be a 63rd-generation descendant of Zhuge Liang.

Appraisal and legacy

Inventions

Zhuge Liang was believed to be the inventor of the Chinese steamed bun, the land mine and a mysterious but efficient automatic transportation device (initially used for grain) referred to as the "wooden ox and flowing horse" (木牛流馬), which is sometimes identified with the wheelbarrow.

Although he is often credited with the invention of the repeating crossbow that is named after him and called the "Zhuge Crossbow" (諸葛弩), this type of semi-automatic crossbow is an improved version of a model that first appeared during the Warring States period (though there is debate over whether the original Warring States period bow was semi-automatic, or rather shot multiple bolts at once). Nevertheless, Zhuge Liang's version could shoot farther and faster.

Zhuge Liang is also credited with constructing the Stone Sentinel Maze, an array of stone piles that is said to produce supernatural phenomenon, located near Baidicheng.

An early type of hot air balloon used for military signalling, known as the Kongming lantern, is also named after him. It was said to be invented by Zhuge Liang when he was trapped by Sima Yi in Pingyang. Friendly forces nearby saw the message on the lantern paper covering and came to Zhuge Liang's aid. Another belief is that the lantern resembled Zhuge Liang's headdress, so it was named after him.

Literary works

Some books popularly attributed to Zhuge Liang can be found today. For example, the Thirty-Six Stratagems, and Mastering the Art of War (not to be confused with Sun Tzu's The Art of War) are two commonly available works attributed to Zhuge Liang. Supposedly, his mastery of infantry and cavalry formation tactics, based on the Taoist classic I Ching, were unrivalled. His memorial, the Chu Shi Biao, written prior to the Northern Expeditions, provided a salutary reflection of his unwavering loyalty to the state of Shu. The memorial moved some readers to tears. In addition, he wrote Admonition to His Son (諸葛亮誡子書) in which he reflected on his humbleness and frugality in pursuit of a meaningful life.

Zhuge Liang is also the subject of many Chinese literary works. A poem by Du Fu, a prolific Tang dynasty poet, was written in memory of Zhuge Liang whose legacy of unwavering dedication seems to have been forgotten in Du Fu's generation (judging by the description of Zhuge Liang' unkept temple). Some historians believe that Du Fu had compared himself with Zhuge Liang in the poem. The full text is:

蜀相 （武侯祠） 丞相祠堂何處尋？ 錦官城外柏森森。 映階碧草自春色， 隔葉黃鸝空好音。 三顧頻煩天下計， 兩朝開濟老臣心。 出師未捷身先死， 長使英雄淚滿襟。

Premier of Shu (Temple of the Marquis of Wu) Where to seek the temple of the noble Premier? In the deep forests outside the City of Silk: Such beautiful reflective scenery of spring, And among the leaves the orioles sings. Three visits brought him the weight of the world. Two emperors he served with one heart. But yet he failed to complete his quest before death. That always makes heroes shed their tears like no other.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong romanticises the historical figures and events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. In the novel, Zhuge Liang is characterised as a brilliant strategist who can perform fantastical achievements such as summoning advantageous winds and devising magical stone mazes.

There is great confusion on whether the stories are historical or fictional. At least, the Empty Fort Strategy is based on historical records, albeit not attributed to Zhuge Liang historically. For Chinese people, the question is largely irrelevant, as the Zhuge Liang of lore is regardless seen as a mastermind, whose examples continue to influence many layers of Chinese society. They are also argued, together with Sun Tzu's The Art of War, to still greatly influence the modern Chinese strategical, military and everyday thinking.

See the following for the stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Zhuge Liang.

• Battle of Bowang
• Zhuge Liang's diplomatic mission to Jiangdong
• Borrowing arrows with straw boats
• Zhuge Liang prays for the eastern wind
• Battle of Jiameng Pass
• Battle of Xiaoting
• Meng Huo captured and released seven times

Events before Zhuge Liang's death

When Zhuge Liang fell critically ill during the Battle of Wuzhang Plains, he attempted to extend his lifespan by 12 years through a ritual. However, he failed when the ritual was disrupted by Wei Yan, who rushed in to warn him about the enemy's advance. Before his death, Zhuge Liang also passed his 24 Volumes on Military Strategy (兵法二十四篇) to Jiang Wei, who would continue his legacy and lead another eleven campaigns against the Cao Wei state.

Worship of Zhuge Liang

There are many temples and shrines built to commemorate Zhuge Liang. Some of the most famous ones include the Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Chengdu, and the Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Baidicheng. Zhuge Liang is also sometimes venerated as a door god at Chinese and Taoist temples, usually in partnership with Sima Yi of Wei.

In popular culture

Film and television

Notable actors who have portrayed Zhuge Liang in film and television include:

• Adam Cheng in The Legendary Prime Minister – Zhuge Liang (1985)
• Li Fazeng in Zhuge Liang (1985)
• Tang Guoqiang in Romance of the Three Kingdoms (1994)
• Pu Cunxin in Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon (2008)
• Takeshi Kaneshiro in Red Cliff (2008–09)
• Lu Yi in Three Kingdoms (2010)
• Raymond Lam in Three Kingdoms RPG (2012)
• Wang Luoyong in The Advisors Alliance (2017)

Video games

Zhuge Liang appears as a playable character in various video games based on the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, most notably Koei Tecmo's Dynasty Warriors series, Romance of the Three Kingdoms series, Warriors Orochi series, Dynasty Tactics series, Kessen II and Sangokushi Koumeiden. He also appears in other games such as Capcom's Destiny of an Emperor, Firaxis Games's Civilization IV and Civilization V, as well as Destiny of Spirits and the mobile games Puzzle & Dragons and Fate/Grand Order.

Card games

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named Kongming, "Sleeping Dragon" in the Portal Three Kingdoms and Commander (2013 Edition) sets.

Zhuge Liang is also featured in the Qun Xiong Zheng Ba (群雄争霸) and Ao Shi Tian Xia (傲视天下) sets of the collectible card game Generals Order.

Zhuge Liang is also a main character in the card game Legends of the Three Kingdoms.

Comics

The young Zhuge Liang is a member of the League of Infinity in the superhero pastiche Supreme by Alan Moore.

In the manhwa Faeries' Landing, the protagonist of the story is a high school student named Ryang Jegal, whose life is turned upside-down by a fairy and her heavenly (and not-so-heavenly) peers. Ryang Jegal, or Jegal Ryang in the proper Asian sequence, is the Korean translation of "Zhuge Liang".

See also

• Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
• Wolonggang
• Zhuge Village

References

Citations from the Sanguozhi

Citations from the Sanguozhi zhu

Citations from the Jin Shu

Other citations

• Auyang, Sunny (2014). The Dragon and the Eagle: The Rise and Fall of the Chinese and Roman Empires. Routledge. ISBN 1317516877.
• Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
• Cleary, Thomas, ed. (1989). Mastering the Art of War. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-0-87773-513-7. OCLC 19814956.
• de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23-220 AD. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004156050.
• Deng, Yinke (2005). Ancient Chinese inventions. Translated by Pingxing Wang. China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 978-7-5085-0837-5.
• Deng, Yinke (2007). History of China. Translated by Martha Avery; Yue Pan. China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 7508510984.
• Dillon, Michael, ed. (1998). China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. ISBN 0700704396.
• Fang, Xuanling (648). Book of Jin (Jin Shu).
• Guo, Sujian; Guo, Baogang, eds. (2008). China in Search of a Harmonious Society (illustrated ed.). Lexington Books. ISBN 0739126245.
• Henry, Eric (December 1992). "Chu-ko Liang in the Eyes of his Contemporaries". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 52 (2): 589–612.
• Huang, Walter Ta (1967). Seven times freed. New York: Vantage Press. OCLC 2237071.
• Knechtges, David R. (2014). "Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮". In Knechtges, David R.; Taiping, Chang (eds.). Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part Four. Leiden: Brill. pp. 2329–35. ISBN 978-90-04-27217-0.
• Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
• Luo, Guanzhong (2007). Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel: Volume IV. Translated by Roberts, Moss. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. ISBN 978-7-119-00590-4.
• Luo, Zhizhong (2003). Zhuge Liang 智謀過人的大謀略家-諸葛亮 (in Chinese). Taichung, Taiwan: Hao Du Publishing Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-957-455-576-5. OCLC 55511668.
• Nojonen, Matti (2009). Jymäyttämisen taito. Strategiaoppeja muinaisesta Kiinasta [The Art of Deception. Strategy lessons from Ancient China (in Finnish). Helsinki: Gaudeamus. ISBN 978-952-495-089-3.
• Off, Greg (2005). Dynasty Warriors 5: Prima Official Game Guide. Roseville, Ontario: Prima Games. ISBN 978-0-7615-5141-6. OCLC 62162042.
• Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
• Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian.
• Sima, Qian (1st century BCE). Records of the Grand Historian (Shi Ji).
• Xi, Zuochi (4th century). Xiangyang Qijiu Ji (襄陽耆舊記).
• Yue, Shi (10th century). Taiping Huanyu Ji.
• Zhang, Zhu; Wen, Xuchu; Duan, Xizhong, eds. (1960). Collected Works of Zhuge Liang (Zhuge Liang Ji 諸葛亮集) (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing. OCLC 21994628.
• Zhu, Dawei; Liang, Mancang (2007). Story of Zhuge Liang (诸葛亮大传). Beijing: Zhonghua Publishing. ISBN 978-7-101-05638-9. OCLC 173263137.

External links

• Works by Lds/Sandbox/Zhuge Liang at Project Gutenberg
• Error in Template:Internet Archive author: Lds/Sandbox/Zhuge Liang doesn't exist.