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Squatting in Asia

Afghanistan[edit]

By 2003, 70 per cent of Kabul had been destroyed by the ongoing war in Afghanistan and Médecins Sans Frontières reported there were tens of thousands of squatters, living without adequate food supply and medical facilities.[1] Conflict has also displaced many people from their homes across the country. In 2019 alone the United Nations estimated 600,000 people had been forced to move. In addition, three million Afghans have returned from neighbouring countries Pakistan and Iran since 2015. Many of these people have ended up in squatted informal settlements.[2]

As of 2018, 78 per cent of the people living in 34 cities were slum dwellers and most of the housing stock was informal.[3] In the 2000s, the Afghan authorities had attempted to provide housing through the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing (MUDH) but demand far outstripped supply and so in the 2010s, the policy switched to slum upgrading.[3] The Special Land Dispute Court was founded in 2002 to arbitrate cases regarding disputed land ownership (including squatting).[4] Adverse possession can be achieved after 15 years of continuous possession, although there are exceptions to the rule.[4]

Armenia[edit]

Azerbaijan[edit]

Squatting in Azerbaijan

In 1994, Armenian forces displaced around 800,000 people from Nagorno-Karabakh, a disputed territory surrounded by Azerbaijan and claimed by Armenia. The refugees were forced to take any option for accommodation such as squatting by the roadside, paying for hotels or living in tent cities.[5] Thousands of refugees squatted Azeri homes and were tolerated by the authorities, which insisted that they would return home eventually to Nagorno-Karabakh. By 2010, residents of the capital Baku were protesting that they wanted their homes back.[6] A World Bank report on housing in Baku stated there were various types of informal settlements including inner city squatter housing and upgraded squatter settlements.[7]

Bangladesh[edit]

Main article: Squatting in Bangladesh

Squatting in Bangladesh occurs when people migrate to cities such as Chittagong and Dhaka. They live in informal settlements known as "bastees".[8][9] As of 2013, almost 35 per cent of Bangladesh's urban population lived in informal settlements. In Khulna, the largest squatted area was Supraghat, with 15,875 residents.[10]

Bahrain[edit]

  • Squatting in Bahrain

Bhutan[edit]

Refer to caption
A Nepali slum in Paro, Bhutan

Brunei[edit]

Refer to caption
Brunei on map
Photograph of house on stilts over water
A slum in Bandar Seri Begawan

Brunei is a country on the north coast of the island of Borneo. There are three distinct legal traditions, namely indigenous beliefs, common law and Islamic law, which all have their own dispute resolution processes.[11]

Indigenous peoples such as the Dusun, the Iban, the Penan, the Murut and the Kedayan who traditionally lived in wooded areas and made a living from forestry have moved to the cities in recent years. They live in apartments and houses rather than squatted shacks.[12]

  • Kampong Ayer
  • Kampong / Kampung
  • Villages of Brunei
  • Hassan, Noor Hasharina; Yong, Gabriel Y. V. (2018). "A Vision in Which Every Family Has Basic Shelter". In Agussalim, Dafri; Holzhacker, Ronald (eds.). Sustainable Development Goals in Southeast Asia and ASEAN (eBook). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-39194-9.

Cambodia[edit]

Main article: Squatting in Cambodia

In the Khmer language, "squatter" means an anarchist and "squatters settlements" literally translate as "places where anarchy and confusion reign" therefore officially squatters are referred to by different names, such as the "urban poor" or "temporary residents".[13]: 5, 18, 21  After the Khmer Rouge was ousted in 1975, many people returned to Phnom Penh and began living in their old houses or squatted informal settlements if their homes were already occupied.[14] One example of a squatted building was the White Building.[15] Until the end of the 1990s, the Phnom Penh authorities did not recognise squatters and tended to evict squats. As of 2003, an estimated 25 per cent of the city's population were squatters.[13]: 5, 16 

China[edit]

Urban village (China)

East Timor[edit]

East Timor became an independent country in 2002, after previously being occupied by first Portugal and then Indonesia. Following the conflict involved in becoming independent, East Timor had no land registry and no process for squatters to be evicted.[16] This created problems as people displaced by war returned to their homes to find them occupied by squatters, who in some cases had rented them out and wanted a monetary settlement before leaving.[17] Land claims can be broken into four groups, namely those who currently possess land, those claiming land they owned under Portuguese rule, those claiming land they possessed under Indonesian rule and people asserting customary or traditional land rights.[16] In 2006, conflict again broke out and 100,000 people were displaced; as had happened previously, when residents returned to their homes they found them squatted.[18]

Hong Kong[edit]

India[edit]

Indonesia[edit]

Refer to caption
Indonesia marked in green on a globe

History[edit]

In Indonesia, the word kampung refers to a low-income neighbourhood, which may or may not be squatted.[20]

Jakarta

One of the oldest kampungs in Jakarta is Kampung Pulo, located beside a river.[20]

Bandung is the third largest Indonesian city after Jakarta and Surabaya. After independence, there was internal migration to Bandung and people expanded existing kampungs or squatted new ones. In 2017, Bandung was estimated to have 120,000 inhabitants of informal settlements.[21]

  • West Papua

Legal[edit]

  • According to UN-HABITAT there are 17 different forms of land tenure in Indonesia. These include Hak Milik (freehold without ownership), Hak Milik Adat (tenure under the Basic Agrarian Law which is often not respected), Hak Guna Bangunan (building right), Hak Guna Hutan (permitted land use), Hak Pakai (use right) and Hak Garap (squatting on state land).[22] Until 1960, people paying land tax had girik rights (land rights), and although this is no longer legally true, it is sometimes still assumed by those who pay land tax. Adverse possession exists as a doctrine and squatters can apply for it after ten years of continuous possession of state land.[22]

Iran[edit]

Iraq[edit]

Israel[edit]

Japan[edit]

After World War II, squatter zones emerged which were made up of a mixture of Burakumin, Korean migrants, Okinawans and foreigners. There were two types, one was composed of people occupying buildings and the other was shack dwellers. The shanty towns were tolerated and the squatters were forced into emergency housing.[23] One example was Barrack Town in Kobe City.[24] Others were Korean encampments beside the Kyoto military airport and Osaka International Airport.[25][26] By the 1950s, there were public housing schemes being established but the number of squatters also continued to increase.[23]

The numbers of both squatters and homeless people rose in Osaka in the 1990s. Most of these people were male day labourers with an average age of 56.[27]

Jordan[edit]

Kazakhstan[edit]

Kuwait[edit]

Kyrgyztstan[edit]

  • Squatting in Kyrgyztstan
  • Cramer
  • Nasritdinov
  • During the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (1936-1991), land squatting occurred when there was insufficient housing. There was another wave of squatting when the USSR collapsed and people internally migrated to the cities such as the capital Bishkek in search of employment.[28] In the wake of the Tulip Revolution in 2005, the disturbed social order allowed squatters to occupy land, one example being the Ak Jar settlement in the Chuy Region north of Bishkek, where the squatter leaders (Kyrgyz: top bashylar) first on the land gave plots to their families and then sold other ones to newcomers.[29] The new president Kurmanbek Bakiev did little to stop the occupations and therefore they continued. Coupled with weak governance, the lack of affordable housing pushed people into illegal occupation. Political leaders condemned the squatting actions, but were unable to stop them, whilst academics argued against the negative perceptions of squatters and NGOs such as Arysh, the Children’s Protection Centre and the Red Cross gave aid.[29]
  • Following the Kyrgyz Revolution of 2010, Kyrgyz nationalists attacked Mayevka, a village near Bishkek, on 19 April 19. They pillaged and claimed land from Meskhetians and Russians, but were evicted in the following days. Five people were killed in the disturbances.[30]
  • Melvin: "The redistribution of property, which has been closely involved in the ethnicization of Kyrgyzstan’s political conflict, took the form of open land grabs in the months following the June violence. Reflecting the state of lawlessness that continued in southern district nearly five months after the summer violence and the ever-present pressure for land created by rapid population growth, ethnic Kyrgyz squatters began to occupy land formally owned or rented by ethnic Uzbeks. With the local authorities struggling to tackle this issue, it risked feeding into the ethnic polarization that remains acute in the region.70 Indeed, some have suggested that the issues of demography and communal conflict are being exploited by political and economic forces—notably the Osh local authorities

Laos[edit]

Lebanon[edit]

Malaysia[edit]

Mongolia[edit]

In Mongolia, pastoral nomads live in ger (yurts). Severe weather disasters known as dzuds have resulted in herds dying and many nomads have moved to living in their ger in informal settlements ringing the capital Ulaanbaatar.[31][32] The majority (61 per cent) of Ulaanbaatar's population of 1.1 million people live in ger, which tend to have electricity but not sanitation.[33]

In 2005, the New Internationalist interviewed orphaned children living in holes in the ground who kept warm using heating pipes.[34]

Myanmar[edit]

Nepal[edit]

North Korea[edit]

  • Squatting in North Korea
  • North Korean famine
  • Kotjebi

Oman[edit]

  • Squatting in Oman

Pakistan[edit]

Singapore[edit]

South Korea[edit]

Sri Lanka[edit]

Syria[edit]

Before civil war[edit]

Syria has a history of squatting which reaches back to ancient times, when Tell Brak was founded 7,000 years ago.[35] In the 1950s, there were squatters on the periphery of Homs.[36] The Yarmouk Camp was set up in 1957 to house Palestinian refugees who had previously been squatting and Aysh Warrwar is a squatted area on the periphery of the capital Damascus which was established in the 1970s by internal migrants.[37] [38] Hafez al-Assad ruled the country as a dictator from 1971 until his death in 2000. He oversaw the development of the country, building houses for squatters who moved from the countryside to cities.[39] Whilst officially land in Syria was either owned privately (38 per cent) or owned by the state (62 percent), in reality tenure was determined by customary, tribal, Islamic, informal and statutory arrangements.[40] It was noted in the British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies in 2016 that Syria had very little slums in contrast to other neighbouring countries; this was explained by the fact that most people could afford to build rudimentary homes in informal settlements or make illegal constructions on land they had bought.[41] In 2005, local authorities estimated that Aleppo had 22 informal settlements which covered 45 per cent of the city's area.[42]

During civil war[edit]

During the Syrian civil war which started in 2011, 2.3 million Syrians fled the country and only 20 per cent of this total entered refugee camps, with the rest finding other housing solutions which included occupying derelict factories in Lebanon.[43] At the beginning of the war, around 40 per cent of Damascus' population and 50 per cent of Aleppo's had been living in informal settlements.[40]

Taiwan[edit]

Tajikistan[edit]

  • Squatting in Tajikistan

Thailand[edit]

Timor-Leste / East Timor[edit]

See caption
East Timor on globe

East Timor became an independent country in 2002, after previously being occupied by first Portugal and then Indonesia. Following the conflict involved in becoming independent, East Timor has no land registry and no process for squatters to be evicted.[16] This created problems as people displaced by war returned to their homes to find them occupied by squatters, who in some cases had rented them out and wanted a monetary settlement before leaving.[17] Land claims can be broken into four groups, namely those who currently possess land, those claiming land they owned under Portuguese rule, those claiming land they possessed under Indonesian rule and people asserting customary or traditional land rights.[16] In 2006, conflict again broke out and 100,000 people were displaced; as had happened before, when they returned to their homes to find that in many cases they had been squatted.[18]

Notes[edit]

Turkmenistan[edit]

  • Squatting in Turkmenistan

Turkey[edit]

United Arab Emirates[edit]

In the sixth or seventh century, churches were constructed on the islands of Dalma, Marawah and Sir Bani Yas in the Persian Gulf. When they fell out of use, there is evidence that squatters occupied them.[44] In 1981, there were 20,000 migrant workers squatting in the city of Al Ain. They had self-built housing on government land. The shacks are constructed out of corrugated metal, plywood and palm leaves.[45]: 15, 174 

Uzbekistan[edit]

In Uzbekistan, squatting is not common. From 1989, some properties owned by Russian-speaking Jews have been occupied as part of broader ethnic tensions.[46][47]

Vietnam[edit]

  • Squatting in Vietnam
  • File:Río_Saigón,_Ciudad_Ho_Chi_Minh,_Vietnam,_2013-08-14,_DD_14.JPG
  • File:Saigon (2012).jpg
  • File:Just another way to bath @ Saigon.jpg

After the French conquest of Vietnam, the French colonial empire introduced land tenure rights which favoured settler colonialists.[48] The 1946 constitution introduced by Hồ Chí Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam set up private land ownership and this was then overturned by the 1980 constitution which gave ownership of all land to the state.[48] A 1963 Government circular had regularized squatting on land owned by the state by making the squatters tenants.[49] The state then introduced the possibility to buy and sell land with the 1993 Land Law, although by 2001 it had not still given out titles; despite this confusion over ownership rights, Ho Chi Minh City has a thriving real estate market.[50]

Hanoi[edit]

In Hanoi, from 1975 onwards there were increasing land encroachments and illegal constructions, particularly in the areas of Giang Vo–Thanh Cong, Cao Sa La and Trung Tu–Kim Lien. A 1987 city ordinance regularized squatter houses on state-owned sites, with the conditions being payment of taxes and a promise to leave if the state needed the land in future.[51] In the 1990s, two squatted informal settlements were the Thanh Nhan precinct in Hai Ba Trung district and the Trung Liet precinct in Dong Da district, the latter on the site of a rubbish dump. The city authorities intended to move the squatters into rented accommodation elsewhere.[52] In the 2000s, there was the Chuong Duong informal settlement beside the Red River. The city at first wanted to evict the squatters then decided to tolerate them. Consequently, the squatters decided to take community action to improve the banks of the river.[53] From 2000 onwards, the Cities Alliance worked with the authorities on a slum upgrading and a National Upgrading Investment Plan.[54]

The Hanoi Municipal People's Committee announced in 2013 that there were over 650 villas and 600 semi-detached homes standing derelict in Hanoi. Some of these had been squatted.[55]

Further reading[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Ideas & opinions from MSF: The squatters of Kabul - Afghanistan". ReliefWeb. 2003.
  2. ^ Torode, Greg (15 February 2019). "Life in Kabul's squatter camps highlights challenge for any Afghan peace". Reuters. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  3. ^ a b French, Matthew; Popal, Abdul; Rahimi, Habib; Popuri, Srinivasa; Turkstra, Jan (April 2019). "Institutionalizing participatory slum upgrading: a case study of urban co-production from Afghanistan, 2002–2016". Environment and Urbanization. 31 (1): 209–230. doi:10.1177/0956247818791043. S2CID 158071778.
  4. ^ a b An Introduction to the Property Law of Afghanistan. Stanford Law School: Afghanistan Legal Education Project (ALEP). 2015.
  5. ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1995). Human Rights Watch World Report 1995 - Azerbaijan.
  6. ^ "Azerbaijan: Karabakh Squatters Cling On". IWPR. 10 March 2010. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
  7. ^ World Bank Group. "Greater Baku Housing Sector Diagnostic" (PDF). Retrieved 8 June 2021.
  8. ^ Chowdhury, Iftekhar Uddin. "Problems of Squatter Settlements in Bangladesh : A Case of Chittagong City".
  9. ^ Choguill, Charles L. (1987). New Communities for Urban Squatters. New York & London: Plenum Press. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1863-7. ISBN 978-1-4612-9039-1.
  10. ^ Roy, Manoj; Hulme, David; Jahan, Ferdous (April 2013). "Contrasting adaptation responses by squatters and low-income tenants in Khulna, Bangladesh". Environment and Urbanization. 25 (1): 157–176. doi:10.1177/0956247813477362. S2CID 154067395.
  11. ^ Black, Ann (1 December 2001). "ADR in Brunei Darussalam: The meeting of three traditions". ADR Bulletin.
  12. ^ Ellen, Roy; Bernstein, Jay (1994). "Urbs in Rure: Cultural Transformations of the Rainforest in Modern Brunei". Anthropology Today. 10 (4): 16–19. doi:10.2307/2783436. ISSN 0268-540X. JSTOR 2783436.
  13. ^ a b Fallavier, Pierre (2003). "The case of Phnom Penh" (PDF). Urban Slums Reports. UCL. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  14. ^ McPherson, Poppy (23 July 2014). "Inside the famous Phnom Penh cinema that has become a living nightmare". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  15. ^ Hale, Erin (4 December 2015). "A Utopian, Futurist Housing Project in Cambodia Has Seen Better Days". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  16. ^ a b c d Carson, Amy Ochoa (2 January 2007). "East Timor's Land Tenure Problems: A Consideration of Land Reform Programs in South Africa and Zimbabwe" (PDF). Indiana International & Comparative Law Review. 17 (2): 395–430. doi:10.18060/17554. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
  17. ^ a b "Timor-Leste: IDPs returning home, but to ongoing poverty and lack of access to basic services" (PDF). Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. 31 October 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
  18. ^ a b "IDP returns slowed by squatters occupying homes". East Timor Law & Justice Bulletin. 23 September 2008. Archived from the original on 10 December 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
  19. ^ Biswas, Moinak (30 January 2020). "Partha Chatterjee and Political Thought: Community, Culture, and the Present". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.617. ISBN 978-0-19-022861-3.
  20. ^ a b Hellman, Jörgen (2018). "How to Prove You are Not a Squatter: Appropriating Space and Marking Presence in Jakarta". In Cabannes, Yves; Douglass, Mike; Padawangi, Rita (eds.). Cities in Asia by and for the People. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 41–68. doi:10.2307/j.ctv7xbs0b.5. ISBN 978-94-6298-522-3. JSTOR j.ctv7xbs0b.5. S2CID 240308699.
  21. ^ Jones, Paul (14 August 2017). "Formalizing the Informal: Understanding the Position of Informal Settlements and Slums in Sustainable Urbanization Policies and Strategies in Bandung, Indonesia". Sustainability. 9 (8): 1436. doi:10.3390/su9081436.
  22. ^ a b "Land and Slum Upgrading" (PDF). Slum Upgrading Facility. 10. 2009.
  23. ^ a b Motooka, Takuya; Mizuuchi, Toshio (2012). "The Struggle for Living Space: Ethnicity, housing and the politics of urban renewal in Japan's squatter areas". In Pererea, Nihal; Tang, Wing-Shing (eds.). Transforming Asian Cities: Intellectual impasse, Asianizing space, and emerging translocalities. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-20372-5.
  24. ^ Taira, Atsushi (2008). "A Critical Review of Recent Urban Social Geography in Japan". Geographical Review of Japan. 81 (5): 279–291. doi:10.4157/GRJ.81.279.
  25. ^ Yoshida, Kunihiko (29 November 2004). "Reconsidering the "Rule of Law" in Japan with Special References to Race, Reparation, and Residential Property". 北大法学論集. 55 (4): 464–437. hdl:2115/15319. ISSN 0385-5953.
  26. ^ "The History of Utoro". www.utoro.jp. Utoro Peace Memorial Museum.
  27. ^ Haraguchi, Takeshi. "The Creation of 'Tourist City' and the Attack on Homeless People: Neoliberal Urbanism in Osaka City, Japan".
  28. ^ Isabaeva, Eliza (2014). "From denizens to citizens in Bishkek: informal squatter-settlement residents in urban Kyrgyzstan". Журнал исследований социальной политики. 12 (2). ISSN 1727-0634.
  29. ^ a b Isabaeva, Eliza (2021). "Transcending Illegality in Kyrgyzstan: The Case of a Squatter Settlement in Bishkek". Europe-Asia Studies. 73 (1): 60–80. doi:10.1080/09668136.2020.1861222. S2CID 231722923.
  30. ^ Nichol, Jim. "The April 2010 Coup in Kyrgyzstan and its Aftermath: Context and Implications for U.S. Interests" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
  31. ^ Caldieron, Jean M. (2 October 2013). "Ger Districts in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: Housing and Living Condition Surveys". International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies. 4 (2): 465–476. ISSN 2028-9324.
  32. ^ Ikegami, Madoka (10 May 2016). "Mongolia's dzud disaster". New Internationalist. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  33. ^ Byambadorj, Tseregmaa; Amati, Marco; Ruming, Kristian J. (August 2011). "Twenty-first century nomadic city: Ger districts and barriers to the implementation of the Ulaanbaatar City Master Plan: Nomadic city: Ger districts in Ulaanbaatar". Asia Pacific Viewpoint. 52 (2): 165–177. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8373.2011.01448.x.
  34. ^ Badamkhand, Lutaa (1 October 2005). "Dolgion: 'Life is given only once'". New Internationalist. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  35. ^ Biello, David (30 August 2007). "Ancient Squatters May Have Been the World's First Suburbanites". Scientific American. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
  36. ^ Associates, Doxiadis (1960). "Plan for the City of Homs Syria". Ekistics. 10 (60): 269–287. ISSN 0013-2942. JSTOR 43615911.
  37. ^ "Squatters in capital struggle for basic services". The New Humanitarian. 4 April 2007. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
  38. ^ "UNRWA: Refugee camp profiles: Syria field office". UNRWA. 29 June 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-06-29. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
  39. ^ Matthews, Don (2012). "How Does a Gangster Regime End? The Uprising in Syria". Oakland Journal. 23: 5–17.
  40. ^ a b Unruh, Jon D. (October 2016). "Weaponization of the Land and Property Rights system in the Syrian civil war: facilitating restitution?". Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding. 10 (4): 453–471. doi:10.1080/17502977.2016.1158527. S2CID 147175682.
  41. ^ Goulden, Robert (1 August 2011). "Housing, Inequality, and Economic Change in Syria". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 38 (2): 187–202. doi:10.1080/13530194.2011.581817. S2CID 143618216.
  42. ^ Hammal, F; Mock, J; Ward, K D; Fouad, M F; Beech, B M; Maziak, W (October 2005). "Settling with danger: Conditions and health problems in peri-urban neighbourhoods in Aleppo, Syria". Environment and Urbanization. 17 (2): 113–125. doi:10.1177/095624780501700209. S2CID 154485701.
  43. ^ Staff writer(s) (31 December 2013). "Syrians Living as Outsiders, as Squatters or in Camps". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
  44. ^ Elders, Joseph (2001). "The lost churches of the Arabian Gulf: recent discoveries on the islands of Sir Bani Yas and Marawah, Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 31: 47–57. ISSN 0308-8421. JSTOR 41223670.
  45. ^ Al-Mansoori, Mohammed Abdullah Jakkah (1997). GOVERNMENT LOW-COST HOUSING PROVISION IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES. THE EXAMPLE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT LOW-COST HOUSING PROGRAMME (Thesis). University of Newcastle upon Tyne.
  46. ^ United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services (1 September 1994). "Uzbekistan. Political Conditions in the Post-Soviet Era". Refworld. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  47. ^ "2020 Investment Climate Statements: Uzbekistan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
  48. ^ a b Le, Toan (15 April 2020). "Dong Tam Land Dispute Exposes Vietnam's Rights and Democracy Challenges". The Diplomat. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  49. ^ Land Reform in Vietnam: Legal framework and program status. Stanford Research Institute. 1968. p. 18.
  50. ^ Kim, Annette M. (2004). "A market without the 'right' property rights". Economics of Transition and Institutional Change. 12 (2): 275–305. doi:10.1111/j.0967-0750.2004.00179.x. S2CID 154166978.
  51. ^ KOH, DAVID (2004). "Illegal Construction in Hanoi and Hanoi's Wards". European Journal of East Asian Studies. 3 (2): 337–369. doi:10.1163/1570061042780928. ISSN 1568-0584. JSTOR 23615655.
  52. ^ Uhlmann, O.; Feldmann, H.; Breuste, J.; Dung, Nguyen Huu (1998). "Improvement of Living and Environmental Conditions of Informal Squatters in Hanoi". Urban Ecology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 371–375. ISBN 9783540646174.
  53. ^ Kürten, Sandra (2005). "Securing a Livelihood in Hanoi". In Thüler, Sue; Büchel, Romana; Derks, Annuska; Loosli, Susanne (eds.). Exploring social (in-)securities in Asia. Bern: Inst. für Sozialanthropologie. ISBN 978-3-906465-31-9.
  54. ^ "Cities Alliance Annual Report 2008". Cities Alliance. 2008.
  55. ^ VIR, Vietnam Investment Review- (10 April 2014). "Vacant villas overtaken by squatters". Vietnam Investment Review. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
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