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Thon Chey

As been related to the Indonesian story of Hang Tuah. Cf. B. B. Parnickel, "Hang Tuah and Thon Chey: the derivatives of the Twins myth in Malay medieval romance and in Khmer farcical cycles"., Leningrad Branch of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR on 12 and 13 April, the fifth, conference dedicated to the memory of N. N. Miklukho-Makla https://ur.booksc.eu/book/30215386/16e40d


Gaudes, Rupert: Thon Chey – der kampuchean. Eulenspiegel. In: Abhdlgen des Staatlichen Museums für Völkerkunde Dresden 37 (1979) 169–199.

Screen adaptation Phnom Pich Movie Production President Ung Son San does not believe that increased competition will decrease rental fees. He produced “Thon Chey,” a story adapted from Khmer literature, in two years on a $20,000 budget, but must share half his profits with cinema owners. https://english.cambodiadaily.com/news/the-return-of-phnom-penh-cinema-758/

Analysis[edit]

Lyrics[edit]

Melody[edit]

Ionian or Mixolydian

History[edit]

An Ambrosian hymn adopted by the Benedictine tradition[edit]

A classic of Renaissance polyphony[edit]

This inspiration was epitomized in the 1575 motet composed by William Byrd as part of his Cantiones, quae ab argumento sacrae vocantur with a famous 3-in-1 canon in the third section.[1] In Byrd's composition a note neri, the canonic voices sing the four hymn lines in syllabic declamation on the model of the Gregorian melody.[2]

An early translation of Martin Luther[edit]

It was translated as Der du bist drei in Einigkeit by Martin Luther. In 1611, it was adapted for the organ by Michael Praetorius who was influential on the development of Protestant hymns but he maintained the use of Latin. The German version was picked up later by German Lutheran academic and hymn-writer Gottfried Vopelius as well as Johann Friedrich Alberti.

In 1655, Johann Beer composed a chorale fantasia on the hymn "O lux beata Trinitas"


New musical settings were also created in Latin as in the works of Dietrich Buxtehude.


At the turn of the 21th century, it remains a source of inspiration for contemporary composers such as Ko Matsushita who composed a version for mixed choir.


Terminology[edit]

The Austroasiatic crossbow is known as sna in Khmer, chrao in Brao language[3] hneev in Hmong language,[4] or hraŏ in Jarai language.[5][6]

It is one of the interesting austroasiatic loanwords found in Sino-Tibetan languages as linguists have found it to be related the Chinese crossbow known as nu (弩) : "the Southern origin of this term is indisputable but the origin of the term is uncertain".[7]

History[edit]

Fight of the origins: Austroasiatic vs. Chinese[edit]

Main article: History of crossbows

While the majority opinion is that the crossbow was of Chinese origin,[8] there is another theory pointing towards an independent Southeast Asian origin for the crossbow based on the aforementioned linguistic evidence:

Around the third century BC, King An Dương of Âu Lạc (modern-day northern Vietnam) and (modern-day southern China) commissioned a man named Cao Lỗ (or Cao Thông) to construct a crossbow and christened it "Saintly Crossbow of the Supernaturally Luminous Golden Claw" (nỏ thần), which one shot could killed 300 men.[10][11] According to historian Keith Taylor, the crossbow, along with the word for it, seems to have been introduced into China from Austroasiatic peoples in the south around the fourth century BC.[11] However, this is contradicted by crossbow locks found in ancient "Chinese" Zhou Dynasty tombs dating to the 600s BC. [12]

In 315 AD, Nu Wen taught the Chams how to build fortifications and use crossbows. The Chams would later give the Chinese crossbows as presents on at least one occasion.[13]

Siege crossbows were transmitted to the Chams by Zhi Yangjun, who was shipwrecked on their coast in 1172. He remained there and taught them mounted archery and how to use siege crossbows.[13][14] In 1177 crossbows were used by the Champa in their invasion and sacking of Angkor, the Khmer Empire's capital.[15]

Angkorian times: the Khmer victory trophy taken from the Cham[edit]

The use if the crossbow by the Angkorian civilization can be traced back to the bas-relief on the walls of the Bayon temple which originated in the late 12th and early 13th centuries during the reign of Jayavarman VII, from 1181 to 1218 AD.[16] These bas-relief show both hunters aiming at deer with there crossbow[17] and soldiers mounted on elephants using crossbows in battle.

It is believed that the crossbow had been perfected by the Cham inflicted severe casualties on the Khmer who did not yet possess this technology.[18] The Cham had probably received this technology from Chinese ambassadors.[19] As seen on the bas-relief of the Bayon, the Khmer trained using targets on wheels to retaliate against these armed attacks and were finally victorious under the Jayavarman VII.[20]

The Khmer themselves perfected the technology to obtain a double-bow catapult mounted on elephants and worked by two men as well as enormous crossbows , were rolled on wheeled barrows and probably used in sieges or for the defence of fortified camps.[21] The doubled crossbow mounted on elephant's back is presumed to have had enough force to be an effective anti-elephant weapon.[22] According to Michel Jacques Hergoualc’h, the double bow crossbows mounted on elephants were merely elements of Cham mercenaries in Jayavarman VII's army.[23] Those were similar to the multiple-string arcuballistae used from the 11th century onwards by the Song dynasty.[24]

The Angkorian crossbow was lost by the Khmer presumably after the fall of Angkor.[25]

  • Khmer elephant mounted crossbow
    Khmer elephant mounted crossbow
  • Khmer elephant mounted crossbow
    Khmer elephant mounted crossbow

Early ethnological observations during French Indochina[edit]

In 1880, Louis Delaporte noticed the the crossbows that were still being used in Cambodia were the same as the ones depicted on the bas-relief of Angkor Wat.[26] Others noted that the crossbow was used by almost all the peoples in Indochine before firearms were introduced.[27] However, according to Henri Mouhot, these crossbows were particularly associated to the Stieng people in both Annam and Cambodia, as they were feared because of their dexterity in their use of these weapons.[28]

Jean Moura that the Brau people were most famous in Cambodia for always carrying around the crossbow.[29] Jean Moura also noted that the Brau people would add poison to the arrows to make them more deadly.[30]

A dreadful fighting weapon until the Vietnam War[edit]

Main articles: Cambodian campaign and Phoenix Program

The span of the crossbow was a measuring distance. The throw of an crossbow of about 20 to 30 meters[31] was considered the safe distance around the village at the end of the 19th century, at a time at which the Brau from the North were fighting with the Tampuan from the East over the control of the Sesan and Srepok rivers in order to dominate the Red Hills plateaux of Ratanakiri.[32]

In 1958, the crossbows of the Bajaraka resistance movement were confiscated. The movement, known as FULRO or United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races, united four main ethnic groups, including the Bahnar, Jarai, Ede and Koho people.[33]

In fact, the native Montagnards of Vietnam's Central Highlands were known to have used crossbows, as both a tool for hunting, and later, an effective weapon against the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. In 1968, Brou, Tampuan, and Jarai insurgents confronted Khmer troops and defeated with the crossbows, the international media helping to amplify their legend by romanticizing on their poisonous darts.[34] Montagnard fighters armed with crossbows therefore proved a highly valuable asset to the US Special Forces operating in Vietnam, and it was not uncommon for the Green Berets to integrate Montagnard crossbowmen into their strike teams.[35][36]

From competitions to ethnic pride[edit]

While the crossbow is used less for war and for hunting, it has remained a popular sport in Southeast Asia. Thus, as early as December 1938, crossbow competitions have been organized at Angkor War "with more than 500 warriors, most of them unsubdued" [37]

Since the advent of mass tourism in Southeast Asia after the end of the Vietnam War, crossbows have become an "outrageous" souvenir for foreigners.[38]

Description[edit]

A fletcher making arrows for his crossbow in Ratanakiri in August 2022.

These crossbows have been observed among other ethnic groups in Southeast Asia such as the White Thai, the Muong of Hoa Bing, the Bunong of Mondulkiri and the Sach or the Lao, though the latter have a smaller version of it.[39] Though the crossbow has different specificities in the various ethnic groups of Indochina were it is used, its functioning principle and its appearance are similar from one group to another.[40]

The proportions of the Jarai crossbow are calculated in the following way: the length of the stock, between the place where the bow is embedded and the trigger, must be equal to half of an arm of the bow. The arrows (drang) are cut from a bamboo internode (boo) and have a fletching made of a piece of pandanus leaf (köbuut) folded into a diamond shape. The crossbow of the Mnong is slightly smaller.[41]

The cord of the crossbows is usually made from natural fibers such as hemp, though it has often replaced by plastic bands nowadays.[42]

The arrowheads are soaked in a kind of curare (kac): it is most often the sap of a large dense forest tree, quite rare in the region, the pöndrai which corresponds to Antiaris toxicaria. Another curare can be prepared from the sap of the Xylia (tröpeh) or the Sindora cochinchinensis Baill (kördaang) to which snake venom or pepper is added. Crossbow hunting (pany chrao) is often done on the lookout. Hunters use several types of shelters for this purpose. The Könöp is a mobile shelter of spherical shape about 1.20, high or a little more. A bamboo frame is covered with rice straw. Concealed inside, the hunter raises his shelter to transport it here or there. Könöp are made at the beginning of the dry season. They are used on clearings that have just been harvested. There is also a fixed foliage shelter called cöndraang. The hunter builds it in a clearing or near a pond frequented by game.[43]

Crossbows are usually kept hanging within the house of the Mon-Khmer ethnic groups along with other weapons and war trophies kept from bull sacrifices.[44] It is one of the valuable assets of the Bahnar people and in the 1950s, one would inherit one or two crossbows as an inheritance[45] and it is still used as a symbolic wedding gift.[46]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Schiltz, Katelijne; Blackburn, Bonnie J. (2007). Canons and Canonic Techniques, 14th-16th Centuries: Theory, Practice, and Reception History ; Proceedings of the International Conference, Leuven, 4-6 October 2005. Peeters Publishers. p. 185. ISBN 978-90-429-1681-4.
  2. ^ Kerman, Joseph; Kerman, Professor of Music Joseph (1981-01-01). The Masses and Motets of William Byrd. University of California Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-520-04033-5.
  3. ^ Matras-Troubetzkoy, Jacqueline (1983). Un village en forêt: l'essartage chez les Brou du Cambodge (in French). Peeters Publishers. p. 388. ISBN 978-2-85297-071-7.
  4. ^ Heimbach, Ernest E. (1980). White Hmong-English Dictionary. SEAP Publications. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-87727-075-1.
  5. ^ Guilleminet, Paul (1959). Dictionnaire bahnar-français (in French). École française d'Extrême-Orient. p. 324.
  6. ^ Siu, Lap Minh (December 2009), Developing the First Preliminary Dictionary of North American Jarai‎,‎‎ Texas Tech University, 82.
  7. ^ Benedict, Paul (1989). "Austroasiatic Loanwords in Sino-Tibetan" (PDF). Austroasiatic Loanwords in Sino-Tibetan, Mon-Khmer Studies. 18 (19): 9.
  8. ^ Scarre, Chris; Fagan, Brian (2016-03-10). Ancient Civilizations. Routledge. p. 353. ISBN 978-1-317-29608-9.
  9. ^ Needham 1994, p. 135.
  10. ^ Kelley 2014, p. 88.
  11. ^ a b Taylor 1983, p. 21.
  12. ^ Loades 2018.
  13. ^ a b Needham 1994, p. 145.
  14. ^ Turnbull 2002.
  15. ^ Chakrabartty, H. R. (1988). Vietnam, Kampuchea, Laos, Bound in Comradeship: A Panoramic Study of Indochina from Ancient to Modern Times. Patriot Publishers. p. 461. ISBN 978-81-7050-048-3.
  16. ^ Sien, Huor (2022-08-11). "អាវុធស្នា មានប្រវត្តិយូរលង់លើទឹកដីខ្មែរ មានភស្ដុតាងនៅលើជញ្ជាំងប្រាសាទនាចុងសតវត្សទី១២ ដើម១៣". Sabay News (in Khmer). Retrieved 2022-08-30.
  17. ^ Laur, Jean (2002). Angkor: An Illustrated Guide to the Monuments. Vinci. p. 353. ISBN 978-2-08-010723-7.
  18. ^ Audric, John (1972). Angkor and the Khmer Empire. R. Hale. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-7091-2945-5.
  19. ^ Freeman, Michael; Warner, Roger (1990). Angkor: The Hidden Glories. Houghton Mifflin. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-395-53757-2.
  20. ^ Pym, Christopher (1968). The Ancient Civilization of Angkor. New American Library. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-451-60858-1.
  21. ^ Beerski, Pierre Jeannerat de (1924). Angkor Ruins in Cambodia. Houghton Mifflin. p. 108.
  22. ^ Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Bayly, Vere Harmsworth Professor of Imperial and Naval History C. A.; Scheidel, Professor of Classics and by Courtesy History Walter; Scheidel, Walter (2020-12-16). The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: the History of Empires. Oxford University Press. p. 445. ISBN 978-0-19-753276-8.
  23. ^ Liang 2006.
  24. ^ Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. 1954. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-521-32727-5.
  25. ^ Til, Chanlin (2015-03-05). "ធ្នូ​​ខ្មែរ​បុរាណ​បាត់​បង់​ជិត​១​​ពាន់​ឆ្នាំ​ ឥឡូវ​នេះ​ បង្ហាញ​មុខ​លើក​ដំបូង​នៅ​បុណ្យ​ភូមិ". news.sabay.com.kh (in Khmer). Retrieved 2022-08-30. {{cite web}}: zero width space character in |title= at position 5 (help)
  26. ^ Delaporte, Louis-Marie-Joseph (1880). Voyage au Cambodge (in French). Delagrave. p. 403.
  27. ^ Harmand, Jérôme (1875). Memoires de la Societe D'Anthropologie de Paris (in French). Masson. p. 355.
  28. ^ Mouhot, Henri (1999). Voyage dans les royaumes de Siam, de Cambodge, de Laos: et autres parties centrales de l'Indo-Chine (in French). Editions Olizane. p. 152. ISBN 978-2-88086-242-8.
  29. ^ Moura, Jean (2015-05-21). Le Royaume du Cambodge (in French). Cambridge University Press. p. 423. ISBN 978-1-108-08398-0.
  30. ^ Moura, Jean (2015-05-21). Le Royaume du Cambodge (in French). Cambridge University Press. p. 263. ISBN 978-1-108-08398-0.
  31. ^ Maître, Henri (1909). Les régions Moï du Sud indo-chinois: le plateau du Darlac (in French). Plon-Nourrit. p. 118.
  32. ^ Jardins et rizières du Cambodge. Les enjeux du développement agricole (in French). KARTHALA Editions. 2008-02-01. p. 405. ISBN 978-2-8111-4143-1.
  33. ^ Salemink, Oscar (2003-02-28). The Ethnography of Vietnam's Central Highlanders: A Historical Contextualization, 1850–1990. University of Hawaii Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-8248-2579-9.
  34. ^ Martin, Marie Alexandrine (1994). Cambodia, a Shattered Society. University of California Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-520-07052-3.
  35. ^ Smithsonian (2017). The Vietnam War: The Definitive Illustrated History. DK Publishing. pp. 64–69. ISBN 978-1465466013.
  36. ^ Kelly, Francis John (1973). U.S. Army Special Forces, 1961-1971. Department of the Army. p. 25.
  37. ^ Demay, Aline (2015-01-12). Tourism and Colonization in Indochina (1898-1939). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-4438-7410-6.
  38. ^ Lewis, Norman (1982). A Dragon Apparent: Travels in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Eland Books. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-907871-00-2.
  39. ^ Solheim, Wilhelm G. (1968). Anthropology at the Eighth Pacific Science Congress of the Pacific Science Association and the Fourth Far Eastern Pre-history Congress, Quezon City, Philippines, 1953. Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii. p. 265.
  40. ^ Goy, Bertrand (2006). Jaraï: arts de guerre et de mort chez les montagnards d'Indochine, mémoires françaises (in French). Indes savantes. p. 42. ISBN 978-2-84654-146-6.
  41. ^ Maître, Henri (1909). Les régions Moï du Sud indo-chinois: le plateau du Darlac (in French). Plon-Nourrit. p. 117.
  42. ^ Myths, Legends and Folk Tales from the Hmong of Laos. Linguistics Department, Macalester College. 1992. p. 78.
  43. ^ Matras-Troubetzkoy, Jacqueline (1983). Un village en forêt: l'essartage chez les Brou du Cambodge (in French). Peeters Publishers. p. 388. ISBN 978-2-85297-071-7.
  44. ^ Goy, Bertrand (2006). Jaraï: arts de guerre et de mort chez les montagnards d'Indochine, mémoires françaises (in French). Indes savantes. p. 22. ISBN 978-2-84654-146-6.
  45. ^ Guilleminet, Paul (1952). Coutumier de la tribu bahnar des Sedang et des Jarai de la province de Kontum (in French). E. de Boccard. p. 480.
  46. ^ Matras-Troubetzkoy, Jacqueline (1983). Un village en forêt: l'essartage chez les Brou du Cambodge (in French). Peeters Publishers. p. 97. ISBN 978-2-85297-071-7.

Category:Crossbows

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