Communal Era[edit]

The origin of the Guelf and Ghibelline conflict can be found in the 11th C., with the expiration of the Ottonian dynasty and the subsequent breakdown and fragmentation of the old Lombard Kingdom of Italy into a mosaic of self-ruling cities, or communes. Disputes between neighboring communes arose frequently - over land borders, passage tolls, navigation rights, etc. - and were often settled on the battlefield. It quickly became routine for two communes to pool their grievances together in a common campaign against a third. Conversely, the latter would seek out an ally of her own amongst those who might have a quarrel with her assailants. As a result, inter-communal alliances began to form in the Po river valley of northern Italy, following a roughly alternating pattern: every town made war on her neighbor, and allied herself with the town next over.

Already during the time of Archbishop Aribert (r. 1018-1044), the city of Milan, the metropolitan see of Lombardy, set about imposing herself over the region, and encroaching on the dominions of its neighbors, notably Lodi and Como. These latter cities formed a common league to resist Milan's aggrandizement. Pavia, the old royal capital of the Lombard Kingdom, who's supremacy was threatened by Milan's ambitious rise, joined them and took leadership of the anti-Milanese league. To counter them, Milan took to forming alliances with their enemies.

This was the nucleus of what would later evolve into the "Ghibellines" and 'Guelfs'. The primitive Ghibelline League consisted of Milan's main neighbors - Pavia, Novara, Como, Lodi and Bergamo. The early Guelfs were Milan and the towns on the other side of her enemies: Vercelli, Tortona, Piacenza and Brescia. From this central Milan-Pavia conflict, allegiances inched outwards, e.g. since Lodi and Bergamo were Ghibelline, that meant Crema would go Guelf; but that meant her great rival Cremona would go Ghibelline. South of the Po River, in the Emilia region, the geography of the communes was rather linear, so the pattern was usually quite predictable: as Piacenza usually went Guelf, that meant Parma went Ghibelline, Reggio Guelf, Modena Ghibelline, Bologna Guelf and so on. The great wild card of the center was Mantua. Although lying on the north side of the Po river, Mantua had extensive land claims on the south side, that conflicted with several neighbors. As a result, Mantua's allegiance could go either way - depending on whom she decided to fight that day.

In the eastern March, league configurations were a little less predictable as the geographical layout of the communes - Ferrara, Padua, Verona, Vicenza, Treviso - did not lend itself to a straightforward two-league system. The core conflict was perhaps between Verona (usually Ghibelline) and Padua (usually Guelf), with the others aligning as they saw fit at that moment.

There is nothing formal in these two rival alliances. There were no known treaties, oaths, officers or institutions formalizing these leagues. It was simply the usual pattern of alliances that would automatically form among northern Italian communes from war to war.

Emperor and Pope[edit]

The Guelf and Ghibelline leagues originally reflected local rivalries. But they soon gained an international dimension. Northern Italy - the Regnum Italicum- lay between Germany and the Papal States. As such both the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope exploited these rival alliances in northern Italy for their political ends.

In the earliest days, the German kings had actually encouraged Milan's ambitions, in the belief that, in his capacity as King of Italy, the Emperor could appoint and thus control her archbishop and thus through him, northern Italy. But by the mid-11th C., when the Milanese citizens proved resistant to royal advice, and even toppled their archbishop, the relationship turned decidedly sour. For the remainder of the century, the Emperor spent much of his efforts in Italy trying to bring Milan to heel and impose his hand-picked archbishop upon them. Milan's enemies, the fledgling Ghibelline league, were all too happy to lend the Emperor a hand.

The Papacy encouraged Milan's defiance, partly to prevent the creation of an imperial state.

Guelf and Ghibelline thus quickly gained an international dimension: "Guelfs" the supporters of the autonomy of local powers - which in the Italian configuration, meant giving free reign to local big powers like Milan, Florence and, increasingly, the Pope. "Ghibellines" were natural supporters of imperial power - as only the Emperor had the wherewithal to keep these local bullies in check an prevent them from dominating their neighbors.

In the mid-11th C., the biggest

quarrels often escalated to war. The multitude of communal wars was bewildering. Como fought Milan, Milan fought Cremona, Cremona fought Piacenza, Piacenza fought Parma, Parma fought Mantua, Mantua fought everybody and so on.

It quickly became routine for two communes to pool their grievances together in a common campaign against a third. Conversely, the latter would seek out an ally of her own amongst those who might have a quarrel with her assailants. As a result, inter-communal alliances began to form and grow, following an alternating pattern: every town made war on her neighbor, and allied herself with the town next over.

In the course of the 11th & 12th C., these alliances congealed roughly into two grand rival leagues across to the Po valley of northern Italy - what were later to become known as the 'Guelfs' and the 'Ghibellines'. The primitive 'Guelf' league was essentially the cities allied to Milan, the metropolitan see of Lombardy. Already in Ottonian times, and certainly by the time of Archbishop Aribert (r. 1018-1044), the city of Milan had been imposing itself over the region, and encroaching on the dominions of its neighbors, notably Lodi and Como. These cities formed a league to resist Milanese aggrandizement. Pavia, the old royal capital, of the Kingdom of Italy, who's notional supremacy was challenged by Milan's ambitious rise, became the early leader of this anti-Milanese league, what would later evolve into the 'Ghibellines'.

Among the early Ghibellines were the main Milanese neighbors - Pavia, Novara, Como, Lodi and Bergamo. The early Guelfs were Milan and the towns on the other side of her enemies: Vercelli, Tortona, Piacenza and Brescia. And it inched outwards, e.g. since Lodi and Bergamo were Ghibelline, that meant Crema would go Guelf; but Crema going Guelf meant her great rival Cremona would go Ghibelline. South of the Po River, in Emilia, the geography of the communes was rather linear, an as a result, the pattern was usually quite predictable: because of its proximity to Pavia, Piacenza usually went Guelf, which meant Parma went Ghibelline, Reggio Guelf, Modena Ghibelline, Bologna Guelf and so on. The great wild card of the center was Mantua. Although lying on the north side of the Po, Mantua had extensive land claims on the south side, that conflicted with several neighbors. As a result, Mantua could go either way - depending on whom she decided to fight that day.

In the eastern March, league configurations were a little less predictable as the geographical layout of the communes - Ferrara, Padua, Verona, Vicenza, Treviso - did not lend itself to a straightforward two-league system. The core conflict was perhaps between Verona (usually Ghibelline) and Padua (usually Guelf), with the others aligning as they saw fit at that moment.

There is nothing formal in these two rival alliances. There were no known treaties, oaths, officers or institutions formalizing these leagues. It was simply the usual pattern of alliances that would automatically form among northern Italian communes from war to war.

Emperor and Pope[edit]

The Guelf and Ghibelline leagues were formed for local reasons, local rivalries, local quarrels. But they soon gained foreign importance. Northern Italy - the Regnum Italicum- lay between Germany and the Papal States. As such both the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope exploited these rival alliances in northern Italy to their political ends.

In the earliest days, the German kings had actually encouraged Milan's ambitions, in the belief that, in his capacity as King of Italy, the Emperor could appoint and thus control her archbishop and thus through him, northern Italy. But by the mid-11th C., when the Milanese citizens proved resistant to royal advice, and even toppled their archbishop, the relationship turned decidedly sour. For the remainder of the century, the Emperor spent much of his efforts in Italy trying to bring Milan to heel and impose his hand-picked archbishop upon them. Milan's enemies, the fledgling Ghibelline league, were all too happy to lend the Emperor a hand.

Guelf and Ghibelline thus quickly gained an international dimension: "Guelfs" the supporters of the autonomy of local powers - which in the Italian configuration, meant giving free reign to local big powers like Milan, Florence and, increasingly, the Pope. "Ghibellines" were natural supporters of imperial power - as only the Emperor had the wherewithal to keep these local bullies in check an prevent them from dominating their neighbors.

Inner-City Factions[edit]

Guelf and Ghibelline also characterized inner-city factions. The political system of the typical Italian commune rested on a careful balancing of rival city noble families. But at times the balance would be tipped in one direction, with the result that a family might be expelled from the city for a period of time. Having lost power in their home town, the expelled faction would often look to regain power by appealing to the city's main enemy. e.g. if a family was expelled from Ghibelline Modena, they might appeal to Guelf Bologna to attack Modena and help them regain power. Such a family would be characterized as a "Guelf" faction within a traditionally Ghibelline city.

There was little meaning to these labels other than partisanship for partisanship's sake. By and large, the more powerful family or clique identified itself with the city's traditional allegiance, the dispossessed with the opposite. So in Modena, the rulers were Ghibelline, the dispossessed Guelf; in Bologna, it was the opposite. And the names stuck.

, Reggio and Bologna would ally together (usually Guelf) against Parma and Modena (usually Modena).

Guelf, Parma Ghibelline, Reggio Guelf, Modena Gibelline, Bologna Guelf, Imola Ghibelline, Faenza Guelf, Forli Ghibelline.

As a result, the alliances were usually quite predictable: Piacenza, Reggio and Bologna would ally against Modena and Parma. How that stood in relation with the main Milanese-Pavian rivalry depended on circumstance of the moment. Usually, the Piacenza-Reggio-Bologna trio was allied with the Guelfs, while Modena-Parma allied with the Ghibellines

Although the Milanese-Pavian rivalry in western Lombardy formed the focus of the allegiances, towns elsewhere in northern Italy were more fluid and hitched their wagon to one league or another, depending on how the configurations stood among their neighbors at that moment.

South of the Po River, in Emilia, the geography of the communes was rather linear, an as a result, the pattern was usually quite predictable: Piacenza Guelf, Parma Ghibelline, Reggio Guelf, Modena Gibelline, Bologna Guelf, Imola Ghibelline, Faenza Guelf, Forli Ghibelline.

How that stood in relation with the main Milanese-Pavian rivalry depended on circumstance of the moment. Usually, the Piacenza-Reggio-Bologna trio was allied with the Guelfs, while Modena-Parma allied with the Ghibellines.

Relative geography was the prime determinant of a city's allegiance.

During the Ottonian period, the German monarchs had tried to secure their hold in northern Italy by strengthening the powers of city bishops at the expense of the native Lombard landed nobility, granting them privileges and jurisdiction that formerly belonged

 With the breakdown of royal power, the old Lombard nobles sought to recover their alienated cities, but the bishops rallied the urban populations in

the power of used his position as titular King of Italy to forward the strengthen of

It quickly became routine for two communes to pool their grievances together in a common campaign against a third. Conversely, the latter would seek out an ally of her own amongst those who might have a quarrel with her assailants. Thus rival cross-city alliances began to form, and gradually widened to include more cities. These alliances followed an alternating pattern: every town made war on her neighbor, and allied herself with the town next over.

In the course of the 11th & 12th C., these alliances congealed roughly into two grand rival leagues across northern Italy and Tuscany - what were later to become known as the 'Guelfs' and 'Ghibellines'. Relative geography was the prime determinant of a city's allegiance.

The primitive 'Guelph' league was essentially the league of cities allied to Milan, the metropolitan see of Lombardy. Already in Ottonian times, and certainly by the time of Archbishop Aribert (ruled 1018-1044), the city of Milan had been imposing itself in the region, and encroaching on the dominions of its neighbors, notably Lodi and Como. These cities formed a league to resist Milanese aggrandizement. Pavia, the old royal capital, who's notional supremacy was challenged by Milan's ambitious rise, became the early leader of this anti-Milanese league, what would later evolve into the 'Ghibellines'.

So, among the early Ghibellines were the main Milanese neighbors - Pavia, Novara, Como, Lodi and Bergamo. The early Guelfs were Milan and the towns on the other side of her enemies: Vercelli, Asti, Tortona, Brescia. And it inched outwards, e.g. since Lodi and Bergamo were Ghibelline, that meant Crema would go Guelf; but Crema going Guelf meant her great rival Cremona would go Ghibelline.

Although the Milanese-Pavian rivalry in western Lombardy formed the focus of the allegiances, towns elsewhere in northern Italy were more fluid and hitched their wagon to one league or another, depending on how the configurations stood among their neighbors at that moment.

South of the Po River, in Emilia, the geography of the communes was rather linear - Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Modena, Bologna, etc. As a result, the alliances were usually quite predictable: Piacenza, Reggio and Bologna would ally against Modena and Parma. How that stood in relation with the main Milanese-Pavian rivalry depended on circumstance of the moment. Usually, the Piacenza-Reggio-Bologna trio was allied with the Guelfs, while Modena-Parma allied with the Ghibellines.

The great wild card of the center was Mantua. Although lying on the north side of the Po, Mantua had extensive land claims on the south side, that conflicted with both Modena and Bologna. As a result, Mantua could go either way - depending on whom she decided to fight that day.

In the eastern March, league configurations were a little less predictable as the geographical layout of the communes - Ferrara, Padua, Verona, Vicenza, Treviso - did not lend itself easily to a simple two-league system. The core conflict was perhaps between Verona (usually Ghibelline) and Padua (usually Guelf), with the others aligning as they saw fit at that moment.

There is nothing formal in these two rival alliances. There were no known treaties, oaths, officers or institutions formalizing either league. It was simply the usual pattern of alliances that would form among northern Italian communes automatically from war to war.

Enter the Emperor and Pope

The Guelf and Ghibelline leagues were formed for local reasons, local rivalries, local quarrels. But they soon gained foreign importance. Northern Italy - the Regnum Italicum- lay between Germany and the Papal States. As such both Emperor and Pope exploited these rival alliances to their political ends.

In the earliest days, the German kings had actually encouraged Milan's ambitions, in the belief that, in his capacity as King of Italy, he could appoint and thus control her archbishop and thus through him, northern Italy. But by the mid-11th C., when the Milanese citizens proved resistant to royal advice, and even toppled their archbishop, the relationship turned decidedly sour. For the remainder of the century, the Emperor spent much of his efforts in Italy trying to bring Milan to heel and impose his hand-picked archbishop upon them. Milan's enemies, the fledlging Ghibelline league, were all too happy to lend the Emperor a hand.

The conflict erupted when the Papacy itself was at a low point. For over a century, the papacy had been in the grip of the Roman lay nobility, notably the various branches of the Tusculan clan, which allowed it to wither into febrility and corruption. But around the mid-century, the church reform movement had gathered traction, the Tusculans were toppled, and, by 1059, a more energetic papacy emerged, intent on renewing the church, cleansing it of corruption and asserting its independence from the lay nobility. The Milanese conflict was among the first orders of business.

Asked to decide whether it was the citizens or the emperor who got to pick the archbishop, the pope stated

References[edit]

Sources[edit]

O. Browning (1893) Guelphs and Ghibellines: A short history of Medieval Italy from 1250-1409, London: Methuen.

W.F. Butler (1906) The Lombard Communes: A history of the republics of north Italy, 1969 reprint, New York: Haskell

L. Martines (1988) Power and Imagination: City States in Renaissance Italy, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press

J.C.L. Simonde de Sismondi (1809-18) Histoire des republiques italiennes du moyen age Vols. I-XV. Paris.

D. Waley (1969) The Italian City-Republics. New York: McGraw-Hill.

W.K. Williams (1891) The Communes of Lombardy from the VI. to the X. Century: An Investigation of the causes which led to the development of municipal unity among the Lombard communes, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.