User:Phunting/History of English foreign policy
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The History of British foreign policy is a brief overview of major trends regarding the foreign policy of England from Henry III up to the Acts of Union 1707 which combined the policies of England and Scotland as the United Kingdom. For the policies after this point, see History of British foreign policy.
Heptarchy: pre-927[edit]
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Anglo-Saxon England: 927-1066[edit]
Anglo-Norman England: 1066-1216[edit]
Plantagenet Era: 1216-1485[edit]
Tudor Period: 1485-1603[edit]
Civil Wars & Restoration: 1603 - 1688[edit]
Charles II: 1660 - 1685[edit]
The Restoration of Charles II, saw England naturally aligned with France, the country that had sheltered him during the years of the Interregnum. In an unpopular move in 1662, Charles sold Dunkirk to his first cousin King Louis XIV of France for about £375,000.[1] The channel port, although a valuable strategic outpost, was a drain on Charles's limited finances.[2]
Relations with Spain, the dominant hegemony of the previous centuries, continued to be poor despite Philip IV's support of Charles during his years of exile. Charles' marriage to Catherine of Braganza, in order to try and secure dynastic succession,[3] secured England Tangier (in North Africa) and the Seven islands of Bombay (the latter having a major influence on the development of the British Empire in India), together with trading privileges in Brazil and the East Indies, religious and commercial freedom in Portugal and two million Portuguese crowns (about £300,000); while Portugal obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine.[4]
Before Charles's restoration, the Navigation Acts of 1650 had hurt Dutch trade by giving English vessels a monopoly, and had started the First Dutch War (1652–1654). Further Acts were passed in 1662 and 1663, specifically designed to curtail Dutch economic ascendancy. Despite such aggressive acts, England was not in a position to go to war with the Dutch Republic; unlike conflict with Spain, England would not have French and Portuguese allies and would have to fight any such conflict alone.[5] The September 1662 treaty attempted to forestall any war; the English made concessions on fishing rights, and the Dutch recognized the English claim to the island of Pula Run in the East Indies. Both sides committed to refuse protection to republican exiles, a major concern of Charles.
The Second Dutch War (1665–1667) was started by English attempts to muscle in on Dutch possessions in Africa and North America. The conflict began well for the English, with the capture of New Amsterdam (renamed New York in honour of Charles's brother James, Duke of York) and a victory at the Battle of Lowestoft, but in 1667 the Dutch launched a surprise attack on the English (the Raid on the Medway) when they sailed up the River Thames to where a major part of the English fleet was docked. Almost all of the ships were sunk except for the flagship, the Royal Charles, which was taken back to the Netherlands as a trophy.[6] The Second Dutch War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Breda (1667).
As a result of the Second Dutch War, Charles dismissed Lord Clarendon, whom he used as a scapegoat for the war.[7] Clarendon fled to France when impeached for high treason (which carried the penalty of death). Power passed to five politicians known collectively by a whimsical acronym as the Cabal—Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury) and Lauderdale. In fact, the Cabal rarely acted in concert, and the court was often divided between two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham, with Arlington the more successful.[8]
In 1668, England allied itself with Sweden, and with its former enemy the Netherlands, in order to oppose Louis XIV in the War of Devolution. Louis made peace with the Triple Alliance, but he continued to maintain his aggressive intentions towards the Netherlands. In 1670, Charles, seeking to solve his financial troubles, agreed to the Treaty of Dover, under which Louis XIV would pay him £160,000 each year. In exchange, Charles agreed to supply Louis with troops and to announce his conversion to Roman Catholicism "as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit".[9] Louis was to provide him with 6,000 troops to suppress those who opposed the conversion. Charles endeavoured to ensure that the Treaty—especially the conversion clause—remained secret.[10] It remains unclear if Charles ever seriously intended to convert.[11]
Meanwhile, by a series of five charters, Charles granted the British East India Company the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops, to form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas in India.[12] Earlier in 1668 he leased the islands of Bombay for a nominal sum of £10 paid in gold.[13] The Portuguese territories that Catherine brought with her as dowry had proved too expensive to maintain; Tangier was abandoned.[14]
In 1670, Charles granted control of the entire Hudson Bay drainage basin to the Hudson's Bay Company by royal charter, and named the territory Rupert's Land, after his cousin Prince Rupert of the Rhine, the company's first Governor.[15]
James II: 1685 - 1688[edit]
Glorious Revolution & Later Stuarts: 1688 - 1707[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ Miller, Charles II pp.93, 99
- ^ It cost the Treasury £321,000 per year (Hutton, p.184).
- ^ Black 1991, p. 121.
- ^ Wynne, S. M. (2004). "Catherine (1638–1705)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/4894. Retrieved 2012-06-04. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
- ^ Black 1991, p. 123.
- ^ The ship's transom is on display at the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.
- ^ Hutton, pp.250–251
- ^ Hutton, p.254 and Miller, Charles II p.175–176
- ^ Fraser, p.275
- ^ Fraser, p.275–276 and Miller, Charles II p.180
- ^ Seaward, Paul (September 2004; online edn, January 2008) "Charles II (1630–1685)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/5144, retrieved 19 April 2010 (Subscription required)
- ^ "East India Company" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Volume 8, p.835
- ^ Bombay: History of a City, The British Library Board, retrieved 19 April 2010
- ^ Hutton, p.426
- ^ The Royal Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company, Hudson's Bay Company, retrieved 14 December 2010
Bibliography[edit]
- Black, Jeremy (1991), A System of Ambition? British Foreign Policy 1660-1793, New York: Longman, ISBN 0-582-00475-6
- Fraser, Antonia (1979), King Charles II, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-77571-5
- Hutton, Ronald (1989), Charles II: King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, Oxford (England): Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822911-9
- Miller, John (1991), Charles II, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-81214-9
