User:Kennedy303/Label (sociology)

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Usage[edit]

External labeling[edit]

A black sign with white handwritten letters reads "Baby IV is a...girl!" The sign rests on grassy ground, and is surrounded by pieces of pink crepe paper confetti.
A sign stating "Baby IV is a...girl!" in a demonstration of external labeling.

Labels serve many functions in sociology. Labels may be used to group individuals who hold common characteristics, such as academic performance, gender, race, or adherence to law.[1] Labels are a product of the society that uses them, and may not be applicable outside of their cultural context.[2] For example, a society that does not have a formal legal system may not have the label “criminal,” as there can be no stigmatization of breaking laws in a society without laws.

Labels can also be used to differentiate between groups for negative reasons. A label may be placed on someone to designate them as different from mainstream society. This can result in in-group favoritism and othering.[3] In-group favoritism occurs when individuals in one group (united by one label) come to favor members of their group above others outside their group.[4] Othering is a specific form of labeling in which the label functions to produce patterns of power and privilege by designating those who do not follow accepted social norms as lesser.[3] In extreme cases, othering can bring about social exclusion, in which case groups labeled as “other” are denied full participation in society.[5] Labels have been used to alienate groups and justify unequal power dynamics, which can harm the individual experiencing exclusion and alienation.[6]

Some may rely on the use of stereotypes to assign labels. Unlike neutral categorization, stereotyping relies on power imbalances to reduce differences between individuals and groups to exaggerated characteristics.[7] Although stereotypes may have no factual basis, they may alter an individual's behavior if consistently applied.[8] Sociologist Robert K. Merton named this effect “self-fulfilling prophecy” to explain the change he observed. Both positive and negative labels may create a case of self-fulfilling prophecy.[1][8] While the application of negative labels may cause discrimination and stigmatization, applying positive labels can also have negative effects on individuals like high expectations and discrimination.[7] American sociologist Howard S. Becker emphasized that labels and labeling are not the sole factors in behavior, and must be considered among other factors.[2] Becker claimed that certain labels may increase one's likelihood of aligning with expected behavior, but they do not fully predict action.[2]

Internal Labeling[edit]

Individuals may choose a label to describe a certain aspect of themselves, and these labels may change over time. Labels can describe a certain facet of one's personality, or they may highlight certain achievements. Labeling one's self can amplify the role of the described behavior in their life, influencing them to conform to behaviors that are expected by those who are in the labeled group.[1] Despite groups holding many positive qualities, others may perceive positive traits of a group to be inferior.[9] This in turn can strengthen the groups' association with their label and the actions and behaviors associated with them.[9] Individuals can bond over shared interests and characteristics, leading to a sense of connection and community.

A large group of people in the Seattle Women's March, some holding handwritten signs. The image is focused on one marcher holding a cowbell and a pink cutout sign with the words "this is what a feminist looks like." The sign looks like a picture frame and is outlining the marchers face.
A person holds up a sign reading "this is what a feminist looks like," claiming the label feminist in an instance of internal self-labeling

Labels are not restricted to changeable aspects of one's self, but may be used to describe other aspects of one's identity, including race, gender, and sexuality. Communities that share labels may have similar experiences that bind individuals to a group identity.[2][10] Groups may also choose to label themselves in order to separate themselves from mainstream society, setting themselves apart as superior to those who follow the norm.[11] Labels may function not only to say what a group is, but to say what the group is not. George Herbert Mead explained that positioning a group in opposition to a common enemy is “the easiest way of getting together,” and that by aligning one's values with a group, those values are then strengthened and validated.[11] Groups can be united in many ways, including shared experiences, common identity, shared values, or a common enemy.

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Individuals do not always share labels they choose with others.[CITE] Some labels are openly claimed, such as the label “feminist” in the image to the right. Other labels may be hidden from others. Individuals may wish to share labels in some contexts but keep them private in others.[CITE] For example, an individual that is concerned about reactions to sharing their label with others may choose to keep this aspect of their identity private from family and friends, but share it with an online community.[CITE] Identity is a deeply personal concept, and may not always be readily known to others.[CITE] As a result, internal labeling may conflict with external labeling.[CITE]

Negative effects[edit]

Stigma[edit]

Social stigma is…

Erving Goffman…

Discrimination[edit]

Individuals who have been labeled as “other” may experience discrimination based on part of their identity.[CITE] Discrimination takes many forms, but is often used to disadvantage individuals and groups based on their actual or perceived membership in a specific group.[CITE] Discrimination may cause restriction of opportunities, decreased access to resources, and other social barriers. There are many types of discrimination, including discrimination based on age, ability, gender, race, and sexual orientation among others.[CITE]

Self-fulfilling prophesy[edit]

Self-fulfilling prophesy is the resulting change in behavior after one has been labeled, where the individual changes their actions to better align with the expectations placed on them by the new label.[CITE] In cases of negative labels, this may have a detrimental effect. For example, when a child is labeled a “trouble-maker,” the expectation of the child is that they will cause conflict and experience little to no success in life. If this label becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy, the child will then begin to demonstrate the negative behaviors expected of them as a result of the expectations being placed on them.

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c Manza, Jeff (2018). The Sociology Project: Introducing the Sociological Imagination. Don Mills, Ontario: Pearson Education. pp. 108–109, 457–458. ISBN 0133768910.
  2. ^ a b c d Becker, Howard S. (2018). Outsiders. New York: Free Press. pp. 1–7, 34–37, 170–171. ISBN 978-1-9821-0622-5.
  3. ^ a b Krumer-Nevo, Michal; Sidi, Mirit (April 2012). "Writing Against Othering". Qualitative Inquiry. 18 (4): 299–309. doi:10.1177/1077800411433546. ISSN 1077-8004.
  4. ^ Taylor, Donald M.; Doria, Janet R. (1981). "Self-Serving and Group-Serving Bias in Attribution". The Journal of Social Psychology. 113 (2): 201–211. doi:10.1080/00224545.1981.9924371.
  5. ^ Modood, Tariq; Thompson, Simon (2021-01-30). "Othering, Alienation and Establishment". Political Studies: 003232172098669. doi:10.1177/0032321720986698. ISSN 0032-3217.
  6. ^ Rudert, Selma C.; Greifeneder, Rainer (2016). "When It's Okay That I Don't Play: Social Norms and the Situated Construal of Social Exclusion". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 42 (7): 955–969. doi:10.1177/0146167216649606. ISSN 0146-1672.
  7. ^ a b Hobbs, Margaret; Rice, Carla, eds. (2013). Gender and women's studies in Canada : critical terrain. Toronto: Women's Press. pp. 228–230. ISBN 978-0-88961-484-0. OCLC 816764228.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  8. ^ a b Kendall, Diana Elizabeth; Murray, Jane Lothian; Linden, Rick (2007). Sociology in our times (4th Canadian ed.). Canada: Thomson Nelson. pp. 24–25, 196–199, 511–512. ISBN 0-17-640668-9. OCLC 62267083.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  9. ^ a b Merton, Robert K. (1948). "The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy". The Antioch Review. 8 (2): 193–210. doi:10.2307/4609267. ISSN 0003-5769.
  10. ^ Copulsky, Daniel; Hammack, Phillip L. (2021-12-17). "Asexuality, Graysexuality, and Demisexuality: Distinctions in Desire, Behavior, and Identity". The Journal of Sex Research: 1–10. doi:10.1080/00224499.2021.2012113. ISSN 0022-4499.
  11. ^ a b Mead, George Herbert (1934). Mind, self & society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Charles W. Morris. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. pp. 45–48, 204–208, 214–215. ISBN 0-226-51667-9. OCLC 1499299.
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