User:Jonharojjashi/Chandragupta II's Hindu Kush expedition

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Mauryan conquest of Li Yul
Part of Mauryan conquests
Dateunknown
Location
Li Yul (Khotan), East Turkestan, Jambudvipa
Result Mauryan victory
Territorial
changes
Belligerents
Mauryan Empire Unknown
Commanders and leaders
Ashoka
Kunala (Kustana)		 Unknown

Prelude, The Takshashila Uprising[edit]

Ashoka too realized the ambitions of his son and encouraged him to fulfill it. As the Ashokavadana puts it:

"Then, understanding the ambition of the one he called his son, and realizing how he was bound by affection, the king ordered him to go on the expedition, while he himself stayed at home."

— Ashokavadana[1]

Kunala was sent by his father (Ashoka) as a viceroy of Takshashila to quell a revolt at Takshashila, in which he achieved success.[2]

Background[edit]

The kingdom of Khotan was given various names and transcriptions. The ancient Chinese called Khotan Yutian (于闐, its ancient pronunciation was gi̯wo-d'ien or ji̯u-d'ien)[3] also written as 于窴 and other similar-sounding names such as Yudun (于遁), Huodan (豁旦), and Qudan (屈丹). Sometimes they also used Jusadanna (瞿薩旦那), derived from Indo-Iranian Gostan and Gostana, the names of the town and region around it respectively. Others include Huanna (渙那).[4] To the Tibetans in the seventh and eighth centuries, the kingdom was called Li (or Li-yul) and the capital city Hu-ten, Hu-den, Hu-then and Yvu-then.[5][6]

The name as written by the locals changed over time; in about the third century AD, the local people wrote Khotana in Kharoṣṭhī script, and Hvatäna in the Brahmi script some time later. From this came Hvamna and Hvam in their latest texts, where Hvam kṣīra or 'the land of Khotan' was the name given. Khotan became known to the west while the –t- was still unchanged, as is frequent in early New Persian. The local people also used Gaustana (Gosthana, Gostana, Godana, Godaniya or Kustana) under the influence of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, and Yūttina in the ninth century, when it was allied with the Chinese kingdom of Șacū (Shazhou or Dunhuang).[5][7]

Hotan (or Khotan) and its surrounding area were originally known as Godana in ancient Sanskrit cosmological texts.[8] The Chinese transcribed the name as 于窴, pronounced Gudana in Middle Chinese (Yutian in modern Standard Chinese); the pronunciation eventually morphed into Khotan. In the 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar Xuanzang attempted to remedy this lexical change. Xuanzang, who was well-versed in Sanskrit, proposed that the traditional name was in fact Kustana (गौस्तन) and asserted it meant "breast of the earth". However, this was likely borrowed from the Tibetan name for the region, Gosthana, which means "land of cows". It is therefore most likely that the original name of Hotan was Sanskritic in origin, a consequence of ancient Indian settlement in the region.[9][10]

During ancient times, Indian colonies were founded in the region of Bactria and in the vicinity of the Taklamakan Desert within Chinese Central Asia, including locations like the Khotan Oasis, Kiya, Miran and etc.[11] In his narrative of Takshashila or Taxila, the pilgrim extensively recounts the legend of Prince Kunala, the eldest son of Ashoka, who, while governing the frontier province, was reputedly blinded due to the machinations of a malevolent stepmother. Hsüan-tsang, during his visit, was shown a Stupa near Shāh-ke-Dhēri, the ancient site of Takshashila, believed to commemorate this tragic event. Upon learning of his son’s fate, Ashoka purportedly executed or exiled the culpable ministers and advisors. The narrative suggests a connection to Khotan and its Indian settlement, possibly indicating a forced relocation from Takshashila to Khotan. While the tale of Kunala’s blinding may be regarded as folklore, the historical foundation of Ashoka’s son governing Takshashila lends credence to the possibility of genuine tradition regarding the forced migration to Khotan.[12]

Conquest and foundation of Khotan[edit]

In the course of Ashoka's expansion, Indian civilization and artistic influences permeated Khotan and the neighboring regions of Chinese Turkistan, subsequently disseminating into the Far East.[13] According to the historical accounts in Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Kashmir was integrated into the expansive Mauryan Empire, with Emperor Ashoka credited for the establishment of the city of Srinagar. Additionally, there are indications that Khotan in Central Asia fell under Mauryan influence, with Tibetan sources suggesting Ashoka's visit to the area.[14]

The unearthing of evidence pointing to Indian cultural influence in distant Turkestan invokes an ancient belief documented by the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-tsiang and echoed in Tibetan texts. According to this tradition, East Turkestan's and Khotan's territory was conquered, colonized and settled around the 2nd century B.C. by Indian migrants from Takshashila, which roughly corresponds to present-day Peshawar District and the Frontier Province. This tradition finds validation through the discovery of manuscripts in Kharoshthi script in the region, indicating the use of a Middle Indian dialect for everyday purposes. Stein's second expedition report (1906-1908) further corroborates this tradition, revealing from ruins located around 100 miles from the nearest potable water source, compelling evidence of the administrative use of the same Indian dialect reaching the farthest corners of Central Asia by the 1st century CE.[15][16][17]

In Tibetan literature, a long list of Indian kings is preserved. Sten Konow, the Norwegian Indologist who critically examined the different versions of the tradition concluded as follows:[18]

"Kustana, the son of Ashoka, is said to have founded the royal dynasty of Khotan. But Kustana's son Ye-u-la, who is said to have founded the capital of the kingdom is most probably identical with the king Yü-Lin mentioned in the Chinese chronicles as ruling over Khotan about the middle of the first century AD.

Ye-u-la was succeeded by his son Vijita Saṃbhava, with whom begins a long series of Khotan kings all begin with Vijita. If there is any truth in the Chinese statement that Wei-chi or Vijita was the family name of the kings, it is of interest to note that this 'Vijita' dynasty, according to the Tibetan tradition, begins where the Han annals place the foundation of the national Khotan kingdom.

Buddhism was introduced into Khotan in the fifth year of Vijita Saṃbhava. Eleven kings followed, and then came Vijita Dharma who was a powerful ruler and always engaged in war. Later, he became a Buddhist and retired to Kashgar. We know from Chinese sources that Kashgar had formerly developed great power, but it became dependent on Khotan during AD 220-264. It is then probable that this was the time of the powerful king Vijita-Dharma.

Vijita Dharma was followed on the throne by his son Vijita Siṃha, and the latter by his son Vijita-Kīrti. Vijita-Kīrti is said to have carried war into India and to have overthrown Saketa, together with king Kanika (or the king of Kanika) and the Guzan king Guzan here evidently stands for Kushāṇa."[19]

Kustana conquered beyond Li-yul, quoting rgya gar chos ’byun as follows:

"The king became an adept in the magic spell of yakṣa-ratha and with this raised a four-divison army of the yakṣa-s—with horses as big as elephants and men as tall as the tāla trees, etc. He brought under his rule without bloodshed all the countries including those to the south of the Vindhya. And he conquered the northern Himalayas, the snowy ranges beyond Li-yul, the entire land of Jambudvīpa bounded by seas on east, south and west, and also fifty small islands."

— Rgya gar chos ’byun[20]

According to the oldest detailed Chinese and Tibetan texts (including a Tibetan text which may be contemporary), which we cannot distrust, the colonizing groups of exiled Indians (including the son and ministers of Emperor Ashoka) founded the Kingdom of Khotan.[21] Kustana (Kunala) founded the Kustana dynasty in Turkestan and the first king of Li Yul, from whose name was derived the name Khoten. Kustana's son, Ye-u-la (Ye-u la–Chin) was succeeded by Vijita Sambhava (Vijaya Sambhava I), who founded the Vijita (Vijaya) dynasty, the veneration of Vaishravana (Kubera) was prevalent, and the ruling elite in Khotan traced their lineage to India, maintaining their prominence until the Uigur Turkish invasions of the eighth and ninth centuries, consequently, the term "Turkistan" during the initial seven centuries of the Common Era is considered anachronistic.[22][23][24][25]

Racial traces of Indian immigration[edit]

A settlement of migrants from the far north-western regions of India, as suggested by Khotan tradition, would likely have influenced the racial makeup of the population. However, two factors hinder our ability to discern this influence in contemporary anthropological data. Firstly, there is limited knowledge regarding the racial characteristics of the inhabitants of Taxila and its surrounding areas during the early period in question. Secondly, the numerous anthropological similarities between the Galchas and present-day Indian populations closest to Khotan, such as the Dards and Kashmiris, suggest that if the presumed immigrants resembled the latter, their integration would have had minimal impact on the prevailing Aomo Alpinus racial type predominant among the contemporary Khotanese population. Nonetheless, it is worth mentioning the occasional striking resemblance in facial features observed between the Khotanese and Kashmiris, a similarity that is challenging to articulate but noteworthy given the distinctive nature of the Kashmiri phenotype.[26]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Strong, John S. (1989). The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 271. ISBN 978-81-208-0616-0.
  2. ^ The Indian History And Bhartiya Itihas Parishad. A Comprehensive History Of India Vol. 2 By The Mauryas And Satavahanas Ed. By K. A Sastri 1957 The Indian History And Bhartiya Itihas Parishad. p. 765.
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mallory 2000 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Theobald, Ulrich (16 October 2011). "City-states Along the Silk Road". ChinaKnowledge.de. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
  5. ^ a b H.W. Bailey (31 October 1979). Khotanese Texts (reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-521-04080-8.
  6. ^ "藏文文献中"李域"(li-yul,于阗)的不同称谓". qkzz.net. Archived from the original on 29 December 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2013.
  7. ^ "神秘消失的古国（十）：于阗". 华夏地理互动社区. Archived from the original on 6 February 2008.
  8. ^ Higgins, Benjamin (November 1962). "The Philippines. Public Policy and National Economic Development. By Frank Golay. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1961. Xviii, 455. Map, Tables, Index, Bibliographic Essay". The Journal of Asian Studies. 22 (1): 114–116. doi:10.2307/2049929. JSTOR 2049929.
  9. ^ Wang, Bangwei; Sen, Tansen (2011). India and China: Interactions through Buddhism and Diplomacy: A Collection of Essays by Professor Prabodh Chandra Bagchi. Anthem Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780857288219.
  10. ^ Puri, Baij Nath (1987), Buddhism in Central Asia, Motilal Banarsidass, p. 52, ISBN 978-81-208-0372-5
  11. ^ S P Gupta, Shashi Prabha Asthana (2002). 2002 -Elements Of Indian Art Including Temple Architecture, Iconography And Iconometry. p. 79.
  12. ^ Stein, Aurel (1907). Ancient Khotan : detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan. Smithsonian Libraries and Archives. Oxford : Clarendon Press. p. 164.
  13. ^ Smith, Vincent Arthur; Edwardes, Stephen Meredyth (1919). The Oxford history of India, from the earliest times to the end of 1911. Robarts - University of Toronto. Oxford, Clarendon Press. p. 178.
  14. ^ Reddy, Krishna (2020). Indian History. McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. p. A178. ISBN 978-93-90219-18-6.
  15. ^ Sukhankar, V. s (1945). Sukhtankar Memorial Edition Vol Ii. p. 317.
  16. ^ Umair Mirza (2019-12-31). Indian History - Collection of Indian History - Collection 3. p. 93.
  17. ^ Gian Chand Mahajan (1937). New Text Book Of Indian History To 1526. p. 225.
  18. ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1990). The History and Culture of the Indian People: the age of imperial unity. vol. [2]. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 641.
  19. ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1990). The History and Culture of the Indian People: the age of imperial unity. vol. [2]. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 641.
  20. ^ Taranatha’s History Of Buddhism In India. p. 60.
  21. ^ Emmerick, R. E. (14 April 1983). "Chapter 7: Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs". In Ehsan Yarshater (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 1. Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition. p. 263. ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9.
  22. ^ Chakraberty, Chandra (1959). Literary History of Ancient India in Relation to Its Racial and Linguistic Affiliations. Vijaya Krishna Bros. p. 156.
  23. ^ Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish (1965). History of Indian and Indonesian Art. Dover Publications. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-486-21436-8.
  24. ^ Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1927). History Of Indian And Indonesian Art (in Unknown).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  25. ^ Taranatha’s History Of Buddhism In India. p. 60.
  26. ^ Stein, Aurel (1907). Ancient Khotan : detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan. Smithsonian Libraries and Archives. Oxford : Clarendon Press. p. 165.
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