Federal Republic of Central America

Not to be confused with the Greater Republic of Central America.

Federal Republic of Central America República Federal de Centro América
1823–1839/1841
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Dios, Unión, Libertad "God, Union, Liberty"
Anthem: La Granadera "The Grenadier"
An orthographic projection of the world with the Federal Republic of Central America in green
Capital	Guatemala City (until 1834) Sonsonate (1834) San Salvador (from 1834)
Common languages	Spanish and various indigenous languages
Religion	Catholicism
Demonym(s)	Central American
Government	Federal presidential republic
President
• 1825–1829	Manuel José Arce (first)
• 1830–1834, 1835–1839	Francisco Morazán (last)
Legislature	Federal Congress
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
Historical era	Spanish American wars of independence
• Independence from the Spanish Empire	15 September 1821
• Independence from the First Mexican Empire	1 July 1823
• Constitution adopted	22 November 1824
• Dissolution	17 April 1839
• El Salvador declares its independence	30 January 1841
Population
• 1824	1,287,491
• 1839	1,900,000
Currency	Real
Preceded by Succeeded by First Mexican Empire Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Los Altos

The Federal Republic of Central America (Spanish: República Federal de Centro América), originally known as the United Provinces of Central America (Provincias Unidas del Centro de América), was a sovereign state in Central America which existed from 1823 to 1839. The federal republic was composed of five states: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The federal republic was bordered to the north by Mexico, to the south by Gran Colombia, and on its eastern coastline by the Mosquito Coast and British Honduras.

Shortly after Central America, then known as the Captaincy General of Guatemala, declared its independence from the Spanish Empire in September 1821, it was annexed by the First Mexican Empire in January 1822 before regaining its independence and forming a federal republic in 1823. The Federal Republic of Central America adopted its constitution, which was based on the federal system of the United States, in November 1824. It held its first presidential election in April 1825, during which, liberal politician Manuel José Arce was elected as the country's first president.

The federal republic was unstable and faced a series of civil wars and internal rebellions throughout its existence. In September 1823, a military mutiny led to government forces clashing outside of Guatemala City, the country's capital city, the following month. Infighting between liberals and conservatives in Nicaragua in 1824 was suppressed by federal forces under Arce without bloodshed. From 1827 to 1829 and again from 1838 to 1840, conservatives fought against liberals for control of the federal government. These factions were unable to overcome their ideological differences and the bloody conflicts ended in the federal republic's effective dissolution in 1839.

Since the dissolution of the federal republic, there have been several attempts to reunify Central America.

Name

The country's first name, adopted upon independence from the First Mexican Empire on 1 July 1823, was the United Provinces of Central America (Spanish: Provincias Unidas del Centro de América). Upon the adoption of the country's constitution on 22 November 1824, the United Provinces of Central America changed its name to the Federal Republic of Central America (República Federal de Centro América). The federal republic has alternatively been referred to as the Federation of Central America ("Federación de Centro América"). Additionally, in the years shortly after independence, some official government documents referred to the country as the Federated States of Central America (Estados Federados del Centro de América).

Background

Colonial Central America

The Spanish conquered Central America in the 16th century. In 1542, Central America was organized into an audiencia, prior to which, the region was divided into numerous audiencias. The Central American audiencia initially extended north to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and south to the Isthmus of Panama, but in 1560, Spain transferred control of the Yucatán Peninsula to New Spain (modern-day Mexico), and in 1567, Spain transferred control of Panama to Peru. In 1568, the Central American audiencia was reorganized as the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The captaincy general was internally subdivided into corregimientos, gobiernos, greater mayorships, and intendancies.

Central American independence

On 15 September 1821, leading Central American colonial administrators declared independence from Spain and signed the Act of Independence of Central America. Independence leaders established the Consultive Junta to temporarily govern the newly-independent Central America until a permanent government could be established. Most government administrators, including Brigadier General Gabino Gaínza (the final captain general of Guatemala), retained their positions.

After independence, Central American leaders were divided on wether to remain independent or to join the First Mexican Empire; monarchists supported annexation while republicans and nationalists opposed it, both due to ideological similarities or differences. In November 1821, Mexican Regent (and later Mexican Emperor) Agustín de Iturbide formally asked the Consultive Junta to join the First Mexican Empire, and on 5 January 1822, the junta voted in favor of annexation. The Mexicans sent Brigadier General Vicente Filísola to enforce the annexation of Central America.

Liberals in Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Nicaragua resisted Mexican attempts to annex the region. In Costa Rica, liberals and conservatives fought each other in the Ochomogo War which ended in the liberals gaining control of Costa Rica. In El Salvador, liberal rebels led by José Matías Delgado and Manuel José Arce resisted two invasions by Filísola in 1822 and 1823; the former resulted in an armistice and a Mexican withdrawal, and the second resulted in Filísola overthrowing Delgado as the political leader of El Salvador, forcing Arce to flee Central America to the United States, and capturing the city of San Salvador. In Nicaragua, José Anacleto Ordóñez launched a rebellion against Miguel González Saravia y Colarte, the conservative political leader of Nicaragua, capturing several cities in the process. Ordóñez's rebellion continued even after Central America declared its independence from Mexico.

On 19 March 1823, Iturbide abdicated the Mexican throne. Once news of Iturbide's abdication reached Filísola on 29 March, he called for Central American political leaders to establish a congress to determine the future of the region, and on 1 April, the Mexican Constituent Congress ordered Mexican forces in Central America to cease all hostilities. The Central American congress convened on 24 June. It declared Central American independence from Mexico on 1 July, however, Chiapas chose to remain a part of Mexico.

History

Further information: History of Central America

National Constituent Assembly

Drafting the constitution

The constitution of the Federal Republic of Central America

Upon Central America's independence from Mexico, the Central American congress proclaimed the establishment of the United Provinces of Central America. The following day, the congress reorganized itself into the National Constituent Assembly and tasked itself with drafting a constitution for the newly-independent Central America. Delgado initially served as Central America's provisional president until 10 July 1823 when the National Constituent Assembly appointed a triumvirate consisting of Arce, Juan Vicente Villacorta, Pedro Molina Mazariegos. As Arce was in the United States at the time of the triumvirate's establishment, Antonio Rivera Cabezas was appointed as his substitute. The three triumvirs would rotate executive power among themselves on a monthly basis.

Initially, the National Constituent Assembly was composed of delegates from only El Salvador and Guatemala; Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua did not send their delegates until October 1823 as they were refusing to send delegates until Mexican soldiers had withdrawn from Central America. The National Constituent Assembly consisted of 64 delegates distributed across Central America. The National Constituent Assembly served as the de facto government of Central America until the constitution could be adopted. The two political factions which composed the National Constituent Assembly were the liberals and the conservatives; the liberals supported a federalism while the conservatives supported centralism.

The National Constituent Assembly drafted the constitution on 12 June 1824 and published it on 4 July. The constitution was inspired by the federal system of the United States as well as the United States Declaration of Independence. On 22 November, the constitution was formally adopted once all 64 members of the assembly signed it. The National Constituent Assembly dissolved itself on 23 January 1825. It was succeeded by the Federal Congress (the country's legislature) on 6 February.

Guatemalan military mutiny

A drawing of José Cecilio del Valle

On 14 September 1823, Captain Rafael Ariza y Torres launched an insurrection in Guatemala City (the capital city) as the Central American government was unable to pay its debts to the military. Although Ariza pledged his loyalty to the National Constituent Assembly, many assemblymen fled the city and called for soldiers from Chiquimula, Quetzaltenango, and San Salvador to suppress the insurrection. Neither Ariza's rebels nor Colonel José Rivas and his 750 soldiers from San Salvador wanted to engage in battle. Conservatives took advantage of the situation and forced the triumvirate to resign on 6 October. They installed a second, less liberal triumvirate consisting of Arce, José Cecilio del Valle, and Tomás O'Horan. As both Arce and Valle were outside of the country at the time of the second triumvirate's formation, they were substituted by José Santiago Milla and Villacorta, respectively. Arce and Valle did not assume their positions on the triumvirate until 1824.

The second triumvirate ordered Rivas to march 150 soldiers into Guatemala City, and soon after, Ariza fled the country for exile in Mexico. The National Constituent Assembly subsequently returned to Guatemala City. The Salvadoran government ordered Rivas to remain near Guatemala City and verify that the National Constituent Assembly was functioning. On 12 October 1823, Rivas determined that the assembly was suppressing civil liberties and marched back into the city. On 17 October, 200 soldiers from Quetzaltenango arrived in Guatemala City and skirmished with Rivas' forces as the soldiers from Quetzaltenango believed that Rivas was acting as an agent on behalf of El Salvador. After a few days, the assembly drafted an agreement to appease both armies. Rivas' forces withdrew back to El Salvador and the soldiers from Quetzaltenango returned home.

Internal conflict in Nicaragua

Liberals and conservatives had been fighting for control of Nicaragua ever since Ordóñez launched his rebellion against the pro-Mexico Nicaraguan government in 1823. The liberals had control of León (the liberal capital) and Granada while the conservatives had control of Managua (the conservative capital), Rivas, and Chinandega. Both sides clashed with each other resulting in hundreds of deaths. In October 1824, the second triumvirate sent Colonel Manuel Arzú to attempt to mediate a peace between the liberals and conservatives, but the mediation failed, and Arce led a federal invasion of Nicaragua on 22 January 1825 to end the civil conflict. His invading force managed to get both the liberals and conservatives to sign an armistice without engaging in combat. Arce dissolved both rival governments and their leaders were exiled from Nicaragua.

Presidency of Manuel José Arce

1825 presidential election

A painting of Manuel José Arce

The federal republic's first presidential election occurred on 21 April 1825. Arce was the liberals' candidate while Valle was the conservatives' candidate. During the election, 41 of the 82 electors voted for Valle, 34 voted for Arce, 4 voted for other candidates, and 3 did not vote due to complications in receiving votes from those three electoral districts; no candidate won an absolute majority of all 82 electors. As the constitution required the president to win an absolute majority of all electors, the Federal Congress was tasked with electing the president instead. The Federal Congress voted 22–5 in favor of electing Arce as president. Although Valle was entitled to become vice president as he was the election's runner up, he refused to accept the position, as did liberal José Francisco Barrundia. Ultimately, conservative Mariano Beltranena became Arce's vice president. Arce and Beltranena assumed office on 29 April.

Although Arce's electoral victory angered conservatives as he defeated Valle, it also alienated liberals (particularly Guatemalan liberals) as Arce had won over the votes of conservative senators by promising to allow the Federal Congress determine wether a new Catholic archdiocese would or would not be created in El Salvador; the conservatives opposed the archdiocese's creation as Delgado, a liberal symbol of Salvadoran independence, would have become archbishop. The liberals considered Arce's compromise with the conservatives to win the presidential election as Arce betraying his liberal positions. Due to this perceived betrayal, liberals Molina Mazariegos and Mariano Gálvez refused to accept appointments to the cabinet positions of secretary of relations and secretary of finance, respectively. As a result, Arce appointed conservatives to his cabinet which led to liberals further accusing him of betraying the liberal cause.

Path to civil war

Juan Barrundia, José Francisco Barrundia's brother, opposed the supremacy of the federal government and was one of Arce's frontmost critics as a result. In mid 1825, Juan Barrundia moved Guatemala's state capital back to Guatemala City from Antigua Guatemala (as it had been temporarily moved in 1823), during which, he seized private property to establish new state government offices as the federal government still occupied the state's government buildings. After Juan Barrundia threatened to raise an army to "contain the despotism of a tyrant", in reference to Arce, the Federal Congress agreed to vacate the building used by the federal treasury and gave it to the Guatemalan state government.

In August 1825, Arce called for the army to raise 10,000 soldiers to defend their country against a potential European invasion of the country once he learned that 28 French warships had arrived in the Caribbean Sea. Although the Congress of Deputies approved Arce's plan, the Senate vetoed it citing a lack of funding. In mid 1826, Arce reduced the number of soldiers he called for down to 4,000. To stop Arce from attempting to raise soldiers, Guatemalan liberals in the Federal Congress contracted French military officer Nicolás Raoul to help draft a new military code to prevent Arce from exercising control of the military, and in response, Arce exiled Raoul from the country. Arce and the Federal Congress compromised; congress approved raising 4,000 soldiers and Raoul was placed in charge of overseeing recruitment. Despite Arce's concerns of an imminent European invasion, no such invasion ever manifested other than a minor rebellion in Costa Rica led by José Zamora who claimed that he was a "vassal of the king of Spain". Due to the liberals' attempt to circumvent Arce's presidential role as commander-in-chief of the army, he refused to implement some laws passed by the Federal Congress which led to the liberals beginning impeachment proceedings against Arce on 2 June 1826. Salvadoran liberals, who were still loyal to Arce, did not attend the impeachment proceedings which prevented the Federal Congress to reach the quorum necessary to impeach Arce, and ten days later, the Guatemalan liberals abandoned their attempt to impeach Arce.

In July 1826, Arce sent federal soldiers to arrest Raoul, accusing him of insubordination by sending letters to Arce calling for his resignation. Juan Barrundia sought to defend Raoul and sent 300 Guatemalan soldiers to arrest the federal soldiers' commander, arguing that the federal government needed a state governor's permission to move soldiers within a state. When Arce sought to condemn Juan Barrundia, Guatemalan liberal senators boycotted the meeting and the Senate failed to reach the quorum necessary to condemn Juan Barrundia. Despite inaction by the Senate, Arce had Juan Barrundia arrested and removed from office on 6 September on charges of attempting to conspire against the federal republic. In response to Juan Barrundia's arrest, Lieutenant Governor Cirilo Flores moved the Guatemalan state government to Quetzaltenango where he passed several anti-clerical laws. An indigenous mob subsequently attacked and killed Cirilo on 13 October 1826 for passing those anti-clerical laws, and the killing was instigated by conservatives and the Church. Arce subsequently invaded Quetzaltenango and defeated those who continued to support what remained of Cirilo's government on 28 October.

First civil war

In October 1826, Arce called for a special election to install a new Guatemalan government; the conservatives won the election and Mariano Aycinena became the governor of Guatemala on 1 March 1827. The election led to many liberals fleeing Guatemala to El Salvador seeking assistance from the liberals there in regaining power. They also spread rumors that Arce was controlled by the Guatemalan conservatives and that he would establish a centralized government. On 10 October, Arce called for an extraordinary congress to convene in Cojutepeque to reestablish constitutional order, due the Federal Congress consistently failing to reach quorum following Juan Barrundia's arrest. However, this call for an extraordinary congress was unconstitutional as it exceeded his presidential duties. On 6 December, in response to Arce's call for an extraordinary congress to convene, Mariano Prado (the liberal acting governor of El Salvador) called for delegates from all the states except for Guatemala to convene their own extraordinary congress in Ahuachapán. Ultimately, neither congress convened.

A depiction of the 1827 Battle of La Trinidad on the Honduran 5 lempira bill

In late December 1826, Prado ordered stationed Salvadoran soldiers on the El Salvador–Guatemala border in preparation to overthrow Arce. In early March 1827, Aycinena declared various leading Guatemalan liberals, including Molina Mazariegos and Rivera Cabezas, as outlaws within Guatemala. In response, Prado ordered his soldiers to invade Guatemala, beginning the First Central American Civil War. There was no formal declaration of war. Honduras supported El Salvador's invasion, but Arce's federal soldiers managed to defeat the invasion on 23 March at the Battle of Arrazola. Arce proceeded to launch a counter-invasion into El Salvador, however, his invasion was itself defeated.

Presidencies of Francisco Morazán

A painting of Francisco Morazán

In 1834, the national capital moved from Guatemala City to the Salvadoran city of Sonsonate so that the capital city would be in a more central location. Later that year, the capital was a moved to San Salvador. The federal government established the Federal District around San Salvador in accordance with article 65 of the federal constitution which called for such a federal district to be created for the country's capital when "circumstances permitted". Although the Federal District legally existed, it served no practical government functions.

Second civil war

The Assembly in 1838 adjourned with the declaration that the states were free to rule themselves as the Federal Republic dissolved. In 1839 Morazán was exiled from Guatemala as a rebel, and Honduras and Nicaragua entered San Salvador, evicting the governing institutions that held the region together.

The union slid into civil war between 1838 and 1840. Its disintegration began when Nicaragua separated from the federation on 5 November 1838, followed by Honduras and Costa Rica (other sources give Nicaragua's secession date as 30 April). Because of the chaotic nature of this period an exact date of disestablishment does not exist, but on 31 May 1838, the Congress met to declare that the states were free to create their own independent republics. In reality, this merely legally acknowledged the process of disintegration that had already begun. The union effectively ended in 1840, by which time four of its five states had declared independence.

Dissolution

On 17 April 1839, Carrera issued a decree declaring the dissolution the Federal Republic of Central America; the Federal Congress accepted the decree on 14 July. On 30 January 1841, El Salvador declared its independence from the Federal Republic of Central America as the Republic of San Salvador.

Government and politics

Federal government

According to the federal constitution, the government of the Federal Republic of Central America was "popular, representative, and federal". All elected officials in the federal republic were elected through indirect elections; voters voted for electors who would vote on behalf their behalf, rather than voting directly for candidates who were seeking public office. In presidential, vice presidential, and legislative elections, there were three rounds of voting; voters elected electors in the first round, electors voted for a further set of electors in the second round, and those electors voted for the actual candidates seeking public office in the third round.

The federal republic's government was also divided into legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The Federal Congress was the bicameral legislative branch of the Federal Republic of Central America. The Chamber of Deputies was the lower house and consisted of 41 deputies allocated across the states on a basis of one deputy per 30,000 people. and The Senate was the upper house and consisted of two senators from each state for a total of ten senators. The Senate, which first assumed office on 24 April 1825, acted as a de facto executive council which approved legislation passed by the Council of Deputies. The Senate also served as an advisory body to the president and was able to review supreme court rulings. The Council of Deputies, meanwhile, was able to override a Senate legislative veto with a two-thirds majority, or with a three-fourths majority for legislation regarding taxation. From 1824 to 1838, there were a total of 11 sessions of the Federal Congress.

The president led the executive branch of the federal republic. The president was elected to a four-year term and served as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president had a cabinet of three secretaries (ministers): the secretary of relations, the secretary of war, and the secretary of the treasury. The president of the Federal Republic of Central America was relatively weaker compared to other contemporary Latin American presidents, particularly because the president could not veto or pocket veto legislation, could not send legislation back to the Federal Congress for reconsiderations, and was required to enact all laws passed by the Federal Congress within fifteen days. The presidency was relatively weak as the writers of the federal constitution sought to oppose the rise of a caudillo-like president with dictatorial powers by implementing several checks on presidential power to ensure legislative supremacy. Rodrigo Facio Brenes, a 30th century Costa Rican lawyer and rector of the University of Costa Rica, described the presidency of the Federal Republic of Central America as "merely decorative".

The Supreme Court of Justice was established on 2 August 1824 as the federal republic's judicial branch. The court consisted of between five to seven justices each elected to staggered two-year terms. The first justices assumed office on 29 April 1825.

Administrative divisions

An 1840 map of the federal republic by cartographer Heinrich Berghaus

The federal republic consisted of five states: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Additionally, from 1834 to 1839, the Federal District existed centered around San Salvador to serve as the national capital. Briefly, from 1838 to 1839, the federal government considered separating Los Altos from Guatemala and elevating it to the status of a state. Guatemala claimed Belize as part of its territorial extent, however, the coastal parts of Belize were occupied by the British. In June 1824, Guatemala transferred administration of Sonsonate to El Salvador.

On 5 May 1824, the National Constituent Assembly ordered each of the federal republic's five states to draft a constitution and install state-level legislative, executive, and judicial branches which resemble those of the federal government. Each state was able to elect legislators, a governor, and judicial officials in indirect elections. Like the Senate at the federal level, each state's Senate functioned as an executive council and offered advice to the state governor. All of the states drafted and ratified their constitutions by December 1825. The federal constitution recognized each state government as being "free and independent" ("libre e independiente") and that the state governments could administer some internal affairs duties not offered to the federal government by the federal constitution.

States of the Federal Republic of Central America

State	Location (borders c. 1834–1838)	Capital city	Population (1824)	Population (1839)
Costa Rica	A map of Costa Rica within the Federal Republic of Central America	San José	70,000	150,000
El Salvador	A map of El Salvador within the Federal Republic of Central America	San Salvador	212,573	350,000
Federal District	A map of the Federal District within the Federal Republic of Central America			50,000
Guatemala	A map of Guatemala and the disputed territory of Belize within the Federal Republic of Central America	Antigua Guatemala (until 1825) Guatemala City (from 1825)	660,580	700,000
Honduras	A map of Honduras within the Federal Republic of Central America	Comayagua	137,069	300,000
Nicaragua	A map of Nicaragua within the Federal Republic of Central America	Managua	207,269	350,000

Political factions

The two major political factions of the Federal Republic of Central America were the liberals (also referred to as fiebres) and the conservatives (also referred to as serviles). These factions were not proper, organized political parties. The liberals received support from the upper-middle class and intellectuals, while the conservatives received support from wealthy landowners, established colonial-era families, and the clergy.

The liberals supported implementing a federal government and granting various devolved powers to the country's states. The liberals attempted to implement freedom of religion in 1823, however, resistance from the predominantly Catholic population led to the liberals failing to implement the reform; instead, Catholicism was established as the country's official religion. In 1825, an executive decree required all Catholic clergymen in the to swear an oath of allegiance to the federal republic. The clergy opposed this decree as they perceived it as diminishing the power and authority of the Catholic Church. The liberals also attempted and failed to implement freedom of the press.

The conservatives supported centralizing power around the national government. They also supported implementing protectionist economic policies and defended the role of the Catholic Church in Central American society.

Foreign relations

Throughout the Federal Republic of Central America's existence, it sent diplomats to Gran Colombia, France, the Holy See, Mexico, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States. The federal republic itself received diplomats from Chile, France, Gran Colombia, Hanover, Mexico, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Mexico recognized Central American independence in August 1823. On 15 March 1825, a federal diplomats signed a treaty with Gran Colombia ensuring the existence of a "perpetual confederation" ("confederación perpetua") between the two countries. The federal government ratified the treaty on 12 September. Although France, the Holy See, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom sent diplomats to the Federal Republic of Central America, they only recognized Central America's independence until after the federal government had already collapsed in the late 1830s.

The United States recognized the independence of the Federal Republic of Central America from Spain on 4 August 1824 when U.S. President James Monroe received Cañas as Central America's envoy to the United States. The two countries signed the Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce, and Navigation on 5 December 1825. On 3 May 1826, Central America received U.S. Chargé d'Affaires John Williams in Guatemala City. William S. Murphy was the last U.S. diplomat assigned to Central America; he left his post in March 1842 after the federal republic had collapsed.

On 16 June 1825, the Federal Congress passed a law which approved the construction of a canal in Nicaragua to connect the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. In October 1830, the Federal Congress approved a contract with the government of the Netherlands to develop the canal project, but the Dutch government canceled the contract the following year as a result of the Belgian Revolution. The Nicaraguan government solicited the federal government in both 1833 and 1838 to realize the construction of a canal, but the federal government did not take action on either request.

National symbols

While resisting the Mexican attempt to annex Central America in 1822, Arce's forces waved a horizontal triband of blue-white-blue inspired by the flag of Argentina. The flag of the Federal Republic of Central America, which was adopted on 21 August 1823, was based on Arce's 1822 design. The adopted flag retained the blue-white-blue horizontal triband design with the country's coat of arms in the center. The federal republic's coat of arms consisted of an equilateral triangle. Contained within the triangle were a rainbow at the top, a Phrygian cap with beams of light emanating from it in the center, and a row of five rounded volcanos surrounded by two oceans representing the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans at the bottom. Surrounding the triangle was an oval with the name of the country within it.

The federal republic's national anthem was La Granadera which was written by Rómulo E. Durón. The federal republic's national motto was "God, Union, Liberty" ("Dios, Unión, Libertad"). This motto was adopted on 4 August 1823 and replaced the previous motto of "God keep you many years" ("Dios guarde a Ud. muchos años") used since before independence.

Demographics

In 1824, Central America had an estimated population of 1,287,491; by 1839, it had an estimated population of 1,900,000. The country's population was unevenly distributed across the states, with over half of the population being located in Guatemala alone in 1824. The constitution granted political representation in the Federal Congress proportional to population, to this population imbalance granted Guatemala a greater proportion of representation in the legislature than the other states.

Central America was not ethnically homogenous. In 1824, 65 percent of the population was indigenous, 31 percent was mixed (Ladino or mestizo), and 4 percent was white (Spanish or criollo). Additionally, ethnic composition varied throuhgout the Central American states. In Guatemala, up to 70 percent of the population was indigenous; El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua were almost entirely composed of mestizos; Costa Rica self-reported to be 80 percent white. Central America's white and mixed population predominantly spoke Spanish, while the majority indigenous population spoke their various native indigenous languages. The majority of Central Americans in the federal republic were illiterate.

Catholicism was the largest and official religion of the Federal Republic of Central America. Catholicism was the only religion which one could worship publicly; public worship of any other religion was prohibited. Although the Catholic Church was very influential in Central American politics, neither the president nor any Supreme Court justice were allowed to be members of the clergy and only one of each state's two senators could be clergymen. Additionally, any papal bulls issued by the pope to Central America had to be approved by the Federal Congress before they could enter into effect.

Economy

A 4 escudo coin struck in 1835 at the San José mint (697 were minted)

The country's constitution enabled the federal government to impose taxes and take out foreign loans to finance itself.

Under Spanish colonial rule, Central America's economy was primarily reliant on agriculture as there was not an abundance of natural resources in the region. The Federal Republic of Central America continued to rely on an agriculture-based economy. Its largest source of income was the exports of lumber products, indigo, cochineal, cacao, and especially tobacco. Tobacco exports alone generated around 200,000 to 300,000 pesos of income annually.

On 19 March 1824, the National Constituent Assembly passed a law which prohibited the minting of coins with "the bust, coat of arms, or whatever other emblems which are typical and distinctive of the Spanish monarchy" ("el busto, escudo de armas o cualesquiera otros emblemas que sean propios y distintivos de la monarquía española"). The law also ordered the creation of a new currency. The observe would depicts the design of the country's coat of arms on the observe, while the reverse would depict a tree and the phrase "Free Grow Fertile" ("Libre Crezca Fecundo").

The constitution abolished slavery.

Legacy

Historical assessment

Richard A. Haggerty, an editor for the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, described the Federal Republic of Central America as "unworkable" yet the "only successful political union of the Central American states" after the end of Spanish colonial rule. The ministry of education of El Salvador described the federal republic as a "political laboratory" ("laboratorio político") for political ideas such as republicanism and constitutionalism.

In 1837, liberal Central American historian Alejandro Marure attributed "all of the misfortunes which the nation suffered" to Arce's attempts to appease both liberals and conservatives during the 1820s. Some 19th century Central American historians also criticized the federal constitution being "too idealistic" as a major component which contributed to the federal republic's collapse. Philip F. Flemion, a history professor at San Diego State University, attributed the collapse of the federal republic to "regional jealousies, social and cultural differences, inadequate communication and transportation systems, limited financial resources, and disparate political views". University of Massachusetts research scholar Lynn V. Foster described the federal republic during the 1820s as being "more like a loose confederation of small independent nations than a single republic" due to the high amount of power and influence wielded by local officials within their own state in comparison to that of the federal government.

Reunification attempts

Main article: Central American reunification

As early as 1842, some Central Americans have sought to reunite the region. Several attempts have been made at reunification either through diplomacy or through force during the 19th and 20th centuries, but none lasted longer than a few months or involved all five former members of the Federal Republic of Central America.

Various attempts were made to reunite Central America in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but none succeeded for any length of time:

• The first attempt was in 1844 by former President Francisco Morazán, who became involved in a struggle for control over Costa Rica. After taking control of the capital, Morazán announced he would create a large army to re-create the Federal Republic as the Confederation of Central America and planned to include El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, but popular feeling rapidly turned against him and a sudden revolt resulted in his arrest and execution by firing squad on 15 September of that year.
• A second attempt was made in October 1852 when El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua created a Federation of Central America (Federación de Centro América). The union lasted less than a month.
• In 1856–1857 the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by the U.S. freebooter William Walker.
• Guatemalan President General Justo Rufino Barrios attempted to reunite the nation by force of arms in the 1880s but he died in battle near the town of Chalchuapa, El Salvador.
• A third union of Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador as the Greater Republic of Central America (República Mayor de Centroamérica) lasted from 1896 to 1898.
• The latest attempt occurred between June 1921 and January 1922, when El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica formed a (second) Federation of Central America. The treaty establishing this federation was signed at San José, Costa Rica, on 19 January 1921. The treaty stipulated for the future creation of one state of all the four signatories, under one constitution. This second federation was nearly moribund from the start, having only a Provisional Federal Council of delegates from each state.
• In 1991 an economic and political organization called the Central American Integration System was formed with all Central American countries as well as the Dominican Republic. In addition to the historic backdrop in Central America, advocates of this latest integration effort regularly cite the European Union as a model to emulate.

See also

• Peru–Bolivian Confederation – another short-lived post-Spanish federal state
• Central American Integration System
• Central America-4 Border Control Agreement

References

Bibliography

Books

• Bernal Ramírez, Luis Guillermo & Quijano de Batres, Ana Elia, eds. (2009). Historia 1 El Salvador [History 1 El Salvador] (PDF). Historia El Salvador (in Spanish). El Salvador: Ministry of Education. ISBN 9789992363683. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
• Cantú, Cesare (1857). Historia Universal: Cronología, Geografía, Arqueología. Documentos [Universal History: Chronology, Geography, Archeology. Documents] (in Spanish). Vol. 7. Translated by Fernández Cuesta, Nemesio. Madrid, Spain: Gaspar y Roig Illustrated Library. OCLC 1151606095. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
• Ching, Erik K. (1997). From Clientelism to Militarism: The State, Politics and Authoritarianism in El Salvador, 1840–1940. Santa Barbara, California: University of California, Santa Barbara. OCLC 39326756. ProQuest 304330235. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
• Foster, Lynn V. (2007). A Brief History of Central America. Brief History (2nd ed.). New York City: Facts on File. ISBN 9780816066711. OCLC 72161924. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
• Haggerty, Richard A., ed. (1990). El Salvador: A Country Study (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Federal Research Division. ISBN 9780525560371. LCCN 89048948. OCLC 1044677008. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
• Hernández de León, Federico (1963). El Libro de las Efemérides: Capítulos de la Historia de la América Central [The Book of the Ephemeris: Chapters of the History of Central America] (in Spanish). Vol. 6. Central America: Tipografía Sánchez & De Guise. OCLC 123103831. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
• Holden, Robert H., ed. (2022). The Oxford Handbook of Central American History. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190928360. OCLC 1304833992. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
• Karnes, Thomas L. (1961). The Failure of Union: Central America, 1824–1960. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807808160. OCLC 484694. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
• Marure, Alejandro (1895). Efemérides de los Hechos Notables Acaecidos en la República de Centro-América Desde el Año de 1821 Hasta el de 1842 [Ephemeris of the Notable Events that Occurred in the Republic of Central America from the Year 1821 to that of 1842] (in Spanish). Central America: Tipografía Nacional. OCLC 02933391. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
• Meléndez Chaverri, Carlos (2000). José Matías Delgado, Prócer Centroamericano [José Matías Delgado, Central American Hero] (in Spanish). Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). San Salvador, El Salvador: Dirección de Publicaciones e Impresos. ISBN 9789992300572. OCLC 1035898393. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
• Michael, Thomas & Cuhaj, George S. (2009). Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins (6th ed.). Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. ISBN 9781440204241. OCLC 430506389. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
• Munro, Dana G. (1918). Kinley, David (ed.). The Five Republics of Central America; Their Political and Economic Development and Their Relations with the United States. New York City: Oxford University Press. LCCN 18005317. OCLC 1045598807. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
• Obregón Quesada, Clotilde María (2002). Nuestros Gobernantes: Verdades del Pasado para Comprender el Futuro [Our Governors: Truths of the Past to Comprehend the Future] (in Spanish) (2nd ed.). San José, Costa Rica: Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica. ISBN 9789977677019. OCLC 53218900. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
• Peloso, Vincent C. & Tenenbaum, Barbara A., eds. (1996). Liberals, Politics, and Power: State Formation in Nineteenth-century Latin America. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 9780820318004. OCLC 32779022. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
• Phillips, Charles & Axelrod, Alan (2005). Encyclopedia of Wars. Vol. I. New York City: Facts on File. ISBN 9780816028511. OCLC 54001271. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
• Pinto Soria, Julio César (1987). El Intento de la Unidad: La República Federal de Centroamérica (1823-1840) [The Attempt at Unity: The Federal Republic of Central America (1823–1840)] (in Spanish). Mesoamerican Regional Research Center. OCLC 824181007. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
• Vázquez Olivera, Mario (2012). La República Federal de Centro-América: Territorio, Nación y Diplomacia, 1823–1838 (in Spanish). Antiguo Cuscatlán and Mexico City: José Matías Delgado University and National Autonomous University of Mexico. ISBN 9789992399910. OCLC 855219486. Retrieved 16 April 2024.

Journals

• Flemion, Philip F. (1 November 1973). "States' Rights and Partisan Politics: Manuel José Arce and the Struggle for Central American Union". Hispanic American Historical Review. 53 (4). Duke University Press: 600–618. doi:10.1215/00182168-53.4.600. ISSN 0018-2168. JSTOR 2511902. OCLC 5791727748. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
• Kenyon, Gordon (1 May 1961). "Mexican Influence in Central America, 1821–1823". Hispanic American Historical Review. 41 (2). Duke University Press: 175–205. doi:10.1215/00182168-41.2.175. ISSN 0018-2168. JSTOR 2510200. OCLC 5548601156. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
• Slade, William F. (July 1917). "The Federation of Central America". Journal of Race Development. 8 (1). Worcester, Massachusetts: 79–150. doi:10.2307/29738226. JSTOR 29738226. OCLC 7961547.
• Smith, Robert S. (1 November 1963). "Financing the Central American Federation, 1821–1838". Hispanic American Historical Review. 43 (4). Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press: 483–510. doi:10.1215/00182168-43.4.483. ISSN 0018-2168. JSTOR 2509898. OCLC 5791738905. Retrieved 3 August 2022.
• Stanger, Francis Merriman (February 1932). "National Origins in Central America". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 12 (1). Duke University Press: 18–45. doi:10.2307/2506428. JSTOR 2506428. OCLC 19342161.
• Ulloa, Félix (25 April 2014). "Dos Siglos de Elecciones en Centroamérica" [Two Centuries of Elections in Central America] (PDF). Electoral Right Magazine (in Spanish) (18). San Salvador, El Salvador: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung: 164–231. ISSN 1659-2069. OCLC 933528636. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2024.

Web sources

• "A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, Since 1776: Central American Federation". Office of the Historian. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
• Bolaños Geyer, Enrique (2018). "La Independencia de Nicaragua" [The Independence of Nicaragua]. Enrique Bolaños Biblioteca (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
• ""Del Cacao al Cordoba Oro": Breve Reseña de la Historia de la Moneda en Nicaragua" ["From Cacao to the Gold Cordoba": Brief Review of the History of Coins in Nicaragua]. Central Bank of Nicaragua (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
• "Símbolos Patrios" [Patriotic Symbols]. Casa Presidencial. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
• Turcios Rodríguez, Israel C. (25 July 2010). "República Federal de Centroamérica y Sus Presidentes" [The Federal Republic of Central America and Its Presidents]. La Tribuna (in Spanish). Retrieved 19 April 2024.

Further reading

• Chuc, Kevin; Sandoval Abullarade, Víctor Hugo. "La República Federal del Centro de América" [The Federal Republic of Central America]. Monedas de Guatemala (in Spanish). Retrieved 5 November 2013.
• Coll Morales, Francisco (6 October 2021). "La República Federal de Centroamérica" [The Federal Republic of Central America]. Forbes (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 April 2024.
• Erazo, Ronald (21 January 2024). "La Época en que Centroamérica fue un Solo País y Tuvo como Primer Presidente a un Salvadoreño: ¿Cómo Surgió y Por Qué Fracasó?" [The Era the Central America was One Country and Had a Salvadoran as Its First President]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 April 2024.
• García Laguardia, Jorge Mario (1992). "De Bayona a la República Federal. Los Primeros Documentos Constitucionales de Centroamérica" [From Bayonne to the Federal Republic. The First Constitutional Documents of Central America]. Ayer (in Spanish) (8). Contemporary History Association and Marshal Pons History Editions: 45–73. ISSN 1134-2277. JSTOR 41324235. OCLC 9973751492.
• Luján Muñoz, Jorge (1982). "La Asamblea Nacional Constituyente Centroamericana de 1823-1824" [The Central American National Constituent Assembly of 1823–1824]. The American Historical Review (in Spanish) (94). Pan American Institute of Geography and History: 33–89. ISSN 0034-8325. JSTOR 20139471. OCLC 9983608349.

External links

• "Constitución de la República Federal de Centro América, Decretada por la Asamblea Nacional Constituyente en 22 de Noviembre de 1824" [Constitution of the Federal Republic of Central America, Decreed by the National Constituent Assembly on 22 November 1824] (PDF). National Constituent Assembly of Central America (in Spanish). 22 November 1822. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2022.
• Trabanino, José Guillermo. "Documentos de la Unión Centroamericana" [Documents of the Central American Union] (PDF). Organization of American States (in Spanish). Retrieved 12 October 2014.