Timeline of European exploration

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Columbus before the Queen, imagined by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, 1843

This timeline of European exploration lists major geographic discoveries and other firsts credited to or involving Europeans during the Age of Discovery and the following centuries, between the years AD 1418 and 1957.

Despite several significant transoceanic and transcontinental explorations by European civilizations in the preceding centuries, the precise geography of the Earth outside of Europe was largely unknown to Europeans before the 15th century, when technological advances (especially in sea travel) as well as the rise of colonialism, mercantilism, and a host of other social, cultural, and economic changes made it possible to organize large-scale exploratory expeditions to uncharted parts of the globe.

The Age of Discovery arguably began in the early 15th century with the rounding of the feared Cape Bojador and Portuguese exploration of the west coast of Africa, while in the last decade of the century the Spanish sent expeditions far across the Atlantic, where the Americas would eventually be reached, and the Portuguese found a sea route to India. In the 16th century, various European states funded expeditions to the interior of both North and South America, as well as to their respective west and east coasts, north to California and Labrador and south to Chile and Tierra del Fuego. In the 17th century, Russian explorers conquered Siberia in search of sables, while the Dutch contributed greatly to the charting of Australia. The 18th century witnessed the first extensive explorations of the South Pacific and Oceania and the exploration of Alaska, while the 19th was dominated by exploration of the polar regions and excursions into the heart of Africa. By the early 20th century, the poles themselves had been reached.

15th century[edit]

Vasco da Gama lands at Calicut, illustration for Os Lusíadas, 1880 by Ernesto Casanova

16th century[edit]

An old painting depicting a wooden sailing ship with sails full blown by the wind
Pedro Álvares Cabral's ship on the fleet that sighted the Brazilian mainland for the first time on 22 April 1500. From the manuscript Memória das Armadas que de Portugal passaram à Índia
Vasco Núñez de Balboa claiming possession of the Mar del Sur ("South Sea").
Map of the island city Tenochtitlán and Mexico gulf made by one of Hernán Cortés' men, 1524, Newberry Library, Chicago
Discovery of the Mississippi by William H. Powell (1823–1879) is a Romantic depiction of de Soto seeing the Mississippi River for the first time. It hangs in the United States Capitol rotunda.
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado Sets Out to the North, by Frederic Remington, 1861–1909
The Cabrillo National Monument in San Diego, California
Crew of Willem Barentsz fighting a polar bear, 1596

17th century[edit]

The Last Voyage of Henry Hudson, John Collier's 1881 painting of Henry Hudson cast adrift.
A 17th-century koch in a museum in Krasnoyarsk. Kochi were used to explore the Siberian watershed and coasts by men such as Kurochkin, Perfilyev and Dezhnev.
"Murderers' Bay", on the South Island of New Zealand, where several of Tasman's men were killed by Maori in December 1642.
The expedition of Semyon Dezhnyov by Klavdy Lebedev
Pere Marquette and the Indians at the Mississippi River, oil painting (1869) by Wilhelm Lamprecht (1838–1906), at Marquette University.

18th century[edit]

Cook's map of New Zealand
Resolution and Adventure in Matavai Bay by William Hodges
"Mount Rainier from the south Part of Admiralty Inlet". The mountain was discovered by Vancouver during his exploration of Puget Sound in the spring of 1792.
Inscription at the end of the Alexander Mackenzie's Canada crossing located at 52°22′43″N 127°28′14″W / 52.37861°N 127.47056°W / 52.37861; -127.47056

19th century[edit]

The famous map of Lewis and Clark's expedition. It changed mapping of northwest America by providing the first accurate depiction of the relationship of the sources of the Columbia and Missouri rivers, and the Rocky Mountains.
Colour drawing of Simon Fraser's 1808 descent of the Fraser River.
"The Crews of H.M.S. Hecla & Griper Cutting into Winter Harbour, 26 September 1819". An engraving from the journal published in 1821.
John Franklin's party encamped at Point Turnagain, the furthest point he reached.
HMS Investigator, on the northwestern coast of Banks Island, 20 August 1851.
Map drawn by Robert McClure detailing the Northwest Passage, including the 1851 route of the Investigator.
The first ascent of the Matterhorn, by Gustave Doré.
The original survey map created by L.M. D'Albertis in 1876.
A group of men pose on the ice with dogs and sledges, with the ship's outline visible in the background
Nansen and Johansen finally depart on their polar journey, 14 March 1895. Nansen is the tall figure, second from left; Johansen is standing second from right.
The Mekong Exploration Commission at Angkor in 1866
From left to right: Francis Garnier, Louis Delaporte, Clovis Thorel, Captain Ernest Doudart de Lagrée, Lucien Joubert, Louis de Carné
engraving from photo by Émile Gsell

20th century[edit]

Amundsen's party at the South Pole, December 1911. From left to right: Amundsen, Hanssen, Hassel and Wisting (photo by fifth member Bjaaland).
Five men in heavy clothing and headgear; three are standing and two seated on the ground. The standing men carry flags; all five have dejected expressions
Scott's party at the South Pole, 18 January 1912. L to R: (standing) Wilson, Scott, Oates; (seated) Bowers, Edgar Evans.
Severnaya Zemlya – raising of the Russian flag in 1913.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Diffie, Bailey (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 465–474. ISBN 0-8166-0782-6.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Morison, Samuel (1974). The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages, 1492–1616. New York: Oxford University Press.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Whitfield, Peter (1998). New Found Lands: Maps in the History of Exploration. Routledge.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Ravenstein, Ernest George (1900). The voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias, 1482–88. London: W. Clowes and Sons.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Fleming, Fergus (2004). Off the Map: Tales of Endurance and Exploration. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 9780871138996.
  6. ^ a b c d Taviani, Paulo (1991). Columbus: The Great Adventure, His Life, His Times, and His Voyages. New York: Random House.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Morison, Samuel (1971). The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages. New York: Oxford University Press.
  8. ^ Pohl, Frederick J. (1966). Amerigo Vespucci: Pilot Major. New York: Octagon Books. pp. 54, 55.
  9. ^ Diffie, Bailey (1960). Prelude to empire: Portugal overseas before Henry the Navigator. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 463–464. ISBN 0-8032-5049-5.
  10. ^ a b Diffie 1977, pp. 464–465.
  11. ^ Bailey Wallys Diffie (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580. U of Minnesota Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-8166-0782-2.
  12. ^ [1] The Coming of the Portuguese by Paul Lunde, London University’s School of Oriental and African Studies, in Saudi Aramco World – July/August 2005 Volume 56, Number 4,
  13. ^ Ferguson, D. W. The discovery of Ceylon by the Portuguese in 1506 (Journal of the Ceylon Asiatic Society, vol. xix, no. 59, 1907, pp. 284–384).
  14. ^ Marsden, William (1811). The history of Sumatra: containing an account of the government, laws, customs, and manners of the native inhabitants, with a description of the natural productions, and a relation to the ancient political state of that island. London: J. McCreery.
  15. ^ a b Lach, Donald F. (1994). Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I: The Century of Discovery. University of Chicago Press. p. 520. ISBN 0-226-46731-7.
  16. ^ Galvano, Antonio Galvano (2009). The Discoveries of the World from Their First Original unto the Year of Our Lord 1555. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-113-68747-0.
  17. ^ Newen Zeytung auss Presillg Landt
  18. ^ Bethell, Leslie (1984). The Cambridge History of Latin America, Volume 1, Colonial Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 257. ISBN 9780521232234.
  19. ^ Cortesão, Armando (1944). The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires: an account of the east, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515/The Book of Francisco Rodrigues rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, nautical rules, almanack and maps, written and drawn in the east before 1515. The Hakluyt Society. ISBN 9788120605350.
  20. ^ Russell-Wood, A. J. R. (1998). The Portuguese empire, 1415–1808: a world on the move. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801859557.
  21. ^ a b c Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1882). History of Central America. San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft. History of Central America.
  22. ^ Li, Tana Li (1998). Nguyễn Cochinchina: southern Vietnam in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. SEAP Publications. p. 72. ISBN 0-87727-722-2.
  23. ^ Yule, Sir Henry Yule, A. C. Burnell, William Crooke (1995). A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases: Hobson-Jobson. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 0-7007-0321-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Keane, A. H. (1892). Eastern geography: a geography of the Malay peninsula, Indo-China, the Eastern archipelago, the Philippines, and New Guinea. London: E. Stanford. p. 139. Lorenzo de Gomez New Guinea 1518.
  25. ^ Marks, Richard Lee (1993). Cortés: the Great Adventurer and the Fate of Aztec Mexico. New York: Knopf.
  26. ^ Bergreen, Laurence (2003). Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe. New York: William Morrow.
  27. ^ Ganong, W. F., Crucial Maps in the Early Cartography and Place-Nomenclature of the Atlantic Coast of Canada, with an introduction, commentary and map notes by Theodore E. Layng (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), Chapter II: "João Àlvares Fagundes," 45–97.
  28. ^ Souza, Francisco (1884). Tratado das ilhas novas e descombrimento dellas e outras couzas. University of Harvard: University of Harvard, Archivo dos Açores.
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Hayes, Derek (2004). America Discovered: A Historical Atlas of North American Exploration. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
  30. ^ John/Silva, Harold/Maria Beatriz Nizza da (1992). Nova História da Expansão Portuguesa (direcção de Joel Serrão e A. H. de Oliveira Marques)- O Império Luso-brasileiro (1500–1620), vol. VI. Lisboa: Editorial Presença. pp. 114–170.
  31. ^ a b c d Goodman, Edward J. (1992). The Explorers of South America. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  32. ^ a b Prescott, William H. (1890). History of the Conquest of Peru. New York: John B. Aldan.
  33. ^ Crawfurd, J. 1856. A descriptive dictionary of the Indian islands and adjacent countries. London: Bradbury & Evans.
  34. ^ Galvano, Antonio (1563). The Discoveries of the World from Their First Original Unto the Year of Our Lord 1555, issued by the Hakluyt Society. Kessinger Publishing. p. 168. ISBN 0-7661-9022-6. 2004 reissued
  35. ^ a b c d e f Quanchi, Max, and John Robson (2005). Historical dictionary of the discovery and exploration of the Pacific Islands. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Whiteway, Richard Stephen (1899). The rise of Portuguese power in India, 1497–1550. Westminster: A. Constable. p. 333. Jorge de Menezes New Guinea.
  37. ^ Fonseca, José Nicolau da (1994). An historical and archaeological sketch of the city of Goa: preceded by a short statistical account of the territory of Goa. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0207-2.
  38. ^ Reséndez, Andrés (2007). A land so strange: the epic journey of Cabeza de Vaca: the extraordinary tale of a shipwrecked Spaniard who walked across America in the sixteenth century. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 9780465068418.
  39. ^ a b c d Hayes, Derek (2007). Historical Atlas of California. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520252585.
  40. ^ Markham, Clements R. Discovery of the Galapagos Islands (Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. XIV, May 1892, pp. 314–16).
  41. ^ Smith, Anthony (2004). Explorers of the Amazon. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-76337-4.
  42. ^ Kelsey, Harry (1986). Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. San Marino: The Huntington Library.
  43. ^ a b c d e f Vaughan, Richard (2007). The Arctic: A History. Stroud: A. Sutton.
  44. ^ Bawlf, Samuel (2003). The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577–1580. Walker & Company.
  45. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Lincoln, W. Bruce (2007). The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
  46. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Lantzeff, George V., and Richard A. Pierce (1973). Eastward to Empire: Exploration and Conquest on the Russian Open Frontier, to 1750. Montreal: McGill-Queen's U.P.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ [2] Count Moric Benyovszky: A Hungarian Cruzoe in Asia, Fr, Manuel Teixeira, page 129
  48. ^ Markham, Clements (1889). A life of John Davis: the navigator, 1550–1605, discoverer of Davis straits. New York: Dodd, Mead. A life of John Davis.
  49. ^ a b Conway, William Marten (1906). No Man's Land: A History of Spitsbergen from Its Discovery in 1596 to the Beginning of the Scientific Exploration of the Country. Cambridge: University Press. p. 146.
  50. ^ a b c Forsyth, James (1992). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian colony 1581–1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  51. ^ a b c d Wessels, C. (1992). Early Jesuit travellers in Central Asia: 1603–1721. Asian Educational Services. p. 90. ISBN 81-206-0741-4.
  52. ^ a b c d e Fisher, Raymond Henry (1943). The Russian Fur Trade, 1550–1700. University of California Press.
  53. ^ a b c d e f Mutch, T. D. (1942). The First Discovery of Australia. Sydney: Mutch, Project Gutenberg of Australia. p. 55.
  54. ^ Asher, Georg Michael (1860). Henry Hudson: The Navigator. London: Hakluyt Society. Henry Hudson the navigator.
  55. ^ Hunter, Douglas (2009). Half Moon: Henry Hudson and the voyage that redrew the map of the New World. New York: Bloomsbury Press.
  56. ^ a b c Butterfield, Consul Willshire (1898). History of Brulé's discoveries and explorations, 1610–1626: being a narrative of the discovery, by Stephen Brulé of Lakes Huron, Ontario and Superior : and of his exploration (the first made by civilized man) of Pennsylvania and western New York, also of the province of Ontario, Canada. Cleveland: Helman-Taylor. History of Brulé's Discoveries and Explorations, 1610–1626.
  57. ^ Mancall, Peter (2009). The Fatal Journey: The Final Expedition of Henry Hudson. Basic Books.
  58. ^ a b Armstrong, Terence (2010). Russian Settlement in the North. Cambridge University Press.
  59. ^ a b Christy, Miller (1894). The voyages of Captain Luke Foxe of Hull, and Captain Thomas James of Bristol, in search of a northwest passage, in 1631–32; with narratives of the earlier northwest voyages of Frobisher, Davis, Weymouth, Hall, Knight, Hudson, Button, Gibbons, Bylot, Baffin, Hawkridge, and others. London: Hakluyt Society.
  60. ^ Hacquebord, Louwrens (2004). "The Jan Mayen Whaling Industry" in Jan Mayen Island in Scientific Focus, Stig Skreslet, editor, Springer Verlag.
  61. ^ Markham, Clements (1881). The voyages of William Baffin, 1612–1622. London: Hakluyt Society. William Baffin.
  62. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Wood, George Arnold (1922). The discovery of Australia. London: Macmillan & Company.
  63. ^ Budge, E.A. Wallis (1970). A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, 1928. Oosterhout: Anthropological Publications.
  64. ^ Peters, Nonja (2006). The Dutch down under, 1606–2006. Crawley, W.A.: University of Western Australia Press.
  65. ^ Kapadia, Harish (2005). Into the untravelled Himalaya: travels, treks, and climbs. Indus Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 81-7387-181-7.
  66. ^ Fischer, David Hackett (2008). Champlain's Dream: The European Founding of North America. New York: Simon & Schuster.
  67. ^ a b c d e f g March, G. Patrick (1996). Eastern destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific. Westport, Conn: Praeger.
  68. ^ Haywood, A. J. (2010). Siberia: a cultural history. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  69. ^ Holland, Clive (1994). Arctic Exploration and Development, c. 500 B.C. to 1915: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland.
  70. ^ a b c Golder, Frank Alfred (1914). Russian expansion on the Pacific, 1641–1850 an account of the earliest and later expeditions made by the Russians along the Pacific coast of Asia and North America; including some related expeditions to the Arctic regions. Cleveland: Authur H. Clark Co.
  71. ^ a b c d e DeVoto, Bernard (1980). The Course of Empire. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
  72. ^ Sandberg, Graham (1904). The Exploration of Tibet, its history and particulars from 1623 to 1904. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co. p. 15. European exploration Tibet.
  73. ^ a b c Parkman, Francis (1999). La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. New York: The Modern Library.
  74. ^ Freeman, Otis W. (1951). Geography of the Pacific,. pp. 229–235. ISBN 9780598436061.
  75. ^ Fischer, Steven R. (2005). Island at the End of the World: the Turbulent History of Easter Island. London: Reaktion.
  76. ^ Tcherkezoff, Serge (2008). First contacts in Polynesia: the Samoan case (1722–1848) : western misunderstanding about sexuality and divinity. Canberra: ANUE Press.
  77. ^ a b Parkman, Francis (1893). France and England in North America: A Series of Historical Narratives. Boston: Little, Brown.
  78. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Mills, William James (2003). Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576074220.
  79. ^ Golder, Frank Alfred and Leonhard Stejneger (1922). Bering's voyages: an account of the efforts of the Russians to determine the relation of Asia and America. New York: American Geographical Society. p. 36.
  80. ^ a b c d Williams, Glyndwr (2003). Voyages of delusion: the quest for the Northwest Passage. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300098662.
  81. ^ Champagne, Father Antoine. The Vérendryes and Their Succossors, 1727–1760 (MHS Transactions, Series 3, No. 25, 1968–69 Season).
  82. ^ a b c d Hough, Richard (1994). Captain James Cook: a biography. New York: Norton.
  83. ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (2007). History of the Sierra Nevada. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25395-7.
  84. ^ Hayes, Derek (2001). Historical atlas of the North Pacific Ocean: maps of discovery and scientific exploration, 1500–2000. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
  85. ^ a b Hayes, Derek (1999). Historical atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of exploration and discovery; British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, Alaska, Yukon. Seattle: Sasquatch Books.
  86. ^ a b Mackenzie, Alexander (1801). Voyages from Montreal, on the river St. Lawrence, through the continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific oceans; in the years 1789 and 1793. London: T. Cadell, jun. and W. Davies.
  87. ^ Vancouver, George, and John Vancouver (1801). A voyage of discovery to the North Pacific ocean, and round the world. Vol. I–IV. London: J. Stockdale.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  88. ^ a b Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
  89. ^ a b c d e f Jeal, Tim (1973). Livingstone. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. ISBN 9780399112157.
  90. ^ Keith, Lloyd (2001). North of Athabasca: Slave Lake and Mackenzie River documents of the North West Company, 1800–1821. Rupert's Land Record Society series. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.
  91. ^ Ambrose, Stephen E. (1996). Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780684826974.
  92. ^ a b Mawar, Granville Allen (1999). Ahab's Trade: The Saga of South Seas Whaling. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-22809-0.
  93. ^ Riffenburgh, Beau (2007). Encyclopedia of the Antarctic. New York: CRC Press. ISBN 9780415970242.
  94. ^ Parry, William Edward (1821). Journal of a voyage for the discovery of a North-West passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific: performed in the years 1819–20. London: John Murray. William Edward Parry 1819.
  95. ^ Cook, F. A. Captain Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, 1819–21. The Discovery of Alexander I., Peter I., and other islands (Bulletin of the American Geographical Society of New York, Vol. XXXIII, 1901, pp. 36–41).
  96. ^ Franklin, John (1824). Narrative of a journey to the shores of the Polar Sea, in the years 1819-20-21-22. London: John Murray. John Franklin.
  97. ^ Spears, John Randolph (1922). Captain Nathaniel Brown Palmer, an old-time sailor of the sea. New York: The Macmillan company. Captain Nathaniel Brown Palmer.
  98. ^ Parry, William Edward (1824). Journal of a second voyage for the discovery of a north-west passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific: performed in the years 1821-22-23, in His Majesty's ships Fury and Hecla. London: John Murray. William Edward Parry 1824.
  99. ^ a b Fleming, Fergus (1998). Barrow's Boys. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press.
  100. ^ Weddell, James (1825). A voyage towards the South Pole, performed in the years 1822–'24. Containing ... a visit to Tierra del Fuego, with a particular account of the inhabitants. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green.
  101. ^ Hayes, Derek (2002). Historical Atlas of Canada: Canada's History Illustrated with Original Maps. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
  102. ^ Franklin, John (1828). Narrative of a second expedition to the shores of the Polar sea in the years 1825, 1826 and 1827, by John Franklin,... including an account of the progress of a detachment to the Eastward, by John Richardson. London: J. Murray. John Franklin 1826.
  103. ^ Beechey, Frederick William (1832). Narrative of a voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait: to co-operate with the Polar expeditions : performed in His Majesty's Ship Blossom, under the command of Captain F.W. Beechey, R.N. ... in the years 1825,26,27,28. Philadelphia: Carey & Lea. p. 364. Frederick Beechey 1826.
  104. ^ Edinger, Ray (2003). Fury Beach: The Four-year Odyssey of Captain John Ross and the Victory. New York: Berkley Books.
  105. ^ Back, George (1836). Narrative of the Arctic land expedition to the mouth of the Great Fish River, and along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, in the years 1833, 1834 and 1835. Philadelphia: E.L. Carey & A. Hart. George Back 1836.
  106. ^ a b c d e Bockstoce, John R. (2009). Furs and Frontiers in the Far North: the Contest Among Native and Foreign Nations for the Bering Strait Fur Trade. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  107. ^ Simpson, Thomas (1843). Narrative of the discoveries on the north coast of America: effected by the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company during the years 1836–39. London: R. Bentley. Thomas Simpson 1843.
  108. ^ Philbrick, Nathaniel (2003). Sea of Glory: America's Voyage of Discovery, the U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. New York: Viking. ISBN 9780670032310.
  109. ^ Ross, James Clark (1847). A voyage of discovery and research in the southern and Antarctic regions, during the years 1839–43. London: John Murray.
  110. ^ a b c McGoogan, Kenneth (2003). Fatal passage: the true story of John Rae, the Arctic hero time forgot. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 9780786709939.
  111. ^ Krapf, J. L. (1860). Travels, researches, and missionary labors during an eighteen years' residence in Eastern Africa together with journeys to Jagga, Usambara, Ukambani, Shoa, Abessinia and Khartum, and a coasting voyage from Mombaz to Cape Delgado. Boston: Ticknor and Fields.
  112. ^ a b c d e f Savours, Ann (1999). The Search for the North West Passage. New York: St. Marten's Press. ISBN 9780312223724.
  113. ^ McClure, Robert (1856). Osborn, Sherard (ed.). The Discovery of the North-West Passage. London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts.
  114. ^ Armstrong, Alexander (1857). A Personal Narrative of the Discovery of the Northwest Passage. London: Hurst and Blackett.
  115. ^ Osborn, Sherard (1852). Stray leaves from an Arctic journal, or, Eighteen months in the polar regions : in search of Sir John Franklin's expedition, in the years 1850–51. New York: Putnam’s. Sherard Osborn.
  116. ^ Inglefield, E. A., George Dickie, and Peter C. Sutherland (1853). A Summer Search for Sir John Franklin: with a Peep into the Polar Basin. London: T. Harrison. A summer search for Sir John Franklin; with a peep into the polar basin.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  117. ^ a b M'Dougall, George F. (1857). The eventful voyage of H.M. discovery ship "Resolute" to the Arctic regions, in search of Sir John Franklin and the missing crews of H.M. discovery ships "Erebus" and "Terror," 1852, 1853, 1854. London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts. p. 452. The Eventful Voyages of HMS Resolute.
  118. ^ Murphy, David (2004). The Arctic Fox: Francis Leopold McClintock, discoverer of the fate of Franklin. Toronto: Dundurn Press.
  119. ^ Kane, Elisha Kent (1856). Arctic Explorations: The Second Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin, 1853, '54, '55. Chicago: S. C. Griggs & Co. Elisha Kent Kane.
  120. ^ Speke, John Hanning (1864). What led to the discovery of the source of the Nile. Edinburgh: Blackwood & Sons. John Hanning Speke Lake Tanganyika.
  121. ^ Keay, John (November 2005). "The Mekong Exploration Commission, 1866 – 68: Anglo-French Rivalry in South East Asia" (PDF). Asian Affairs. XXXVI (III). Routledge. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  122. ^ a b c d e f Fleming, Fergus (2001). Ninety Degrees North: The Quest for the North Pole. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 9780802117250.
  123. ^ a b c Dick, Lyle (2001). Muskox Land: Ellesmere Island in the Age of Contact. Calgary, Alta: University of Calgary Press.
  124. ^ a b Jeal, Tim (2007). Stanley: The Impossible Life of Africa's Greatest Explorer. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  125. ^ D’Albertis, L. M. (1879). "Journeys up the Fly River and in other parts of New Guinea". Royal Geographical Society. 1 (1): 4–16. doi:10.2307/1800487. JSTOR 1800487.
  126. ^ Leslie, Alexander (1879). The Arctic Voyages of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. 1858–1879. London: Macmillan and Co.
  127. ^ Sverdrup, Otto and Ethel Harriet Hearn (1904). New Land; Four Years in the Arctic Regions. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
  128. ^ Mirsky, Jeannette (1970). To the Arctic: The story of northern exploration from earliest times to the present. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226531786.
  129. ^ a b Crane, David (2006). Scott of the Antarctic: A Life of Courage and Tragedy. New York: Alfred N. Knopf. ISBN 9780375415272.
  130. ^ Amundsen, Roald and Godfred Hansen (1908). Roald Amundsen's "The North West Passage"; being the record of a voyage of exploration of the ship "Gjøa" 1903–1907. London: A Constable and Co.
  131. ^ Mason, Kenneth (1932). "In Memoriam: Henry Treise Morshead". Himalayan Journal. 4. Archived from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
  132. ^ a b Barr, William (1975). "Severnaya Zemlya: the last major discovery". Geographical Journal. 141 (1): 59–71. doi:10.2307/1796946. JSTOR 1796946.
  133. ^ Stefansson, Vilhjalmur (1922). The Friendly Arctic: The Story of Five Years in Polar Regions. New York: Macmillan.
  134. ^ Hayes, Derek. Newestfoundland (Canadian Geographic, October -November 2003 issue).
  135. ^ Herzog, Maurice (1997). Annapurna, first conquest of an 8000-meter peak (26,493 feet). New York: Lyons & Burford.
  136. ^ Hillary, Edmund (1955). High Adventure: The True Story of the First Ascent of Everest. Hodder & Stoughton, London.
  137. ^ Curran, Jim (1995). K2: The Story of the Savage Mountain. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-66007-2.

Further reading[edit]

  • Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper encyclopedia of the modern world: a concise reference history from 1760 to the present (1970) online