East Papuan languages
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| East Papuan | |
|---|---|
| (obsolete) | |
| Geographic distribution | Melanesia |
| Linguistic classification | Proposed language family |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | None |
The East Papuan languages is a defunct proposal for a family of Papuan languages spoken on the islands to the east of New Guinea, including New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville, Solomon Islands, and the Santa Cruz Islands. There is no evidence that these languages are related to each other, and the Santa Cruz languages are no longer recognized as Papuan.
All but two of the starred languages below (Yélî Dnye and Sulka) make a gender distinction in their pronouns. Several of the heavily Papuanized Austronesian languages of New Britain do as well. This suggests a pre-Austronesian language area in the region.
History of the proposal[edit]
The East Papuan languages were proposed as a family by linguist Stephen Wurm (1975) and others. However, their work was preliminary, and there is little evidence that the East Papuan languages actually have a genetic relationship. For example, none of these fifteen languages marked with asterisks below share more than 2–3% of their basic vocabulary with any of the others. Dunn and colleagues (2005) tested the reliability of the proposed 2–3% cognates by randomizing the vocabulary lists and comparing them again. The nonsense comparisons produced the same 2–3% of "shared" vocabulary, demonstrating that the proposed cognates of the East Papuan languages, and even of proposed families within the East Papuan languages, are as likely to be due to chance as to any genealogical relationship. Thus in a conservative classification, many of the East Papuan languages would be considered language isolates.
Since the islands in question have been settled for at least 35,000 years, their considerable linguistic diversity is unsurprising. However, Malcolm Ross (2001; 2005) has presented evidence from comparing pronouns from nineteen of these languages that several of the lower-level branches of East Papuan may indeed be valid families. This is the classification adopted here. For Wurm's more inclusive classification, see the Glottolog page here.
Classification (Ross 2005)[edit]
Small families[edit]
Each of the first five entries in boldface is an independent language family, not known to be related to the others. Languages that are transparently related to each other are listed together on the same line. The first family is a more tentative proposal than the others and awaits confirmation.
Reconstructed pronoun sets for each of the families are given in the individual articles.
- ? Yele – West New Britain family [tentative]
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- East New Britain family
- North Bougainville family (Bougainville)
- South Bougainville family (Bougainville)
- Central Solomon family
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* Dunn and colleagues found no demonstrable shared vocabulary between these fifteen languages.
** Ross considered these four languages in addition to the fifteen studied by Dunn and colleagues.
True language isolates[edit]
These three languages are not thought to be demonstrably related to each other or to any language in the world.
- Sulka isolate* – New Britain (poor data quality; the possibility remains that Sulka will be shown to be related to Kol or Baining)
- Kol isolate* – New Britain
- Kuot (Panaras) isolate* – New Ireland
* Dunn and colleagues found no demonstrable shared vocabulary between these fifteen languages.
Austronesian languages formerly classified as East Papuan[edit]
Wurm classified the three languages of the Santa Cruz and Reef Islands as an additional family within East Papuan. However, new data on these languages, along with advances in the reconstruction of Proto-Oceanic, has made it clear that they are in fact Austronesian:
Similarly, Wurm had classified the extinct Kazukuru language and its possible sister languages of New Georgia as a sixth branch of East Papuan. However, in a joint 2007 paper, Dunn and Ross argued that this was also Austronesian.
- Kazukuru family: Kazukuru language
Lexical comparison[edit]
The tables below give lexical comparisons for the East Papuan languages (i.e., all Papuan languages spoken in New Britain and islands to the east), with languages listed roughly from west to east. All lexical items are from the Trans-New Guinea database[1] unless noted otherwise.
| family | language | head | hair | ear | eye | nose | tooth | tongue | leg | blood | bone | skin | breast |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| isolate | Ata[2] | sangalie | iei | usine'i | anaxu ilaanu (anaxu = 'mouth') | levexe | tava'a | sialuxu | xine | vasime'a | susu | ||
| isolate | Anêm[3] | og | ki | gêt | ei | piŋi | lo | êlêŋ | ti 'foot' | esin | exe | palau | |
| isolate | Kol | 'kel.a; kela keřne | 'komɒ; komɔʔ kalɛane | 'bula; bula kɛřlɛ | pelnɛl; 'penel | ta'li:; tali keřne | 'mire; mi̠řɛ kɛřnɛ | dal kɛřnɛ; raal | pe:re | 'be:la | 'ti:le | tomalu gomo; to'molu | 'tombo; to̠to la̠nɛ |
| isolate | Sulka[4] | lpek | ngiris | ngaela | vorngap | ɨndiɨl | ptaik | ||||||
| Baining | Mali (Arambum dialect) | uʷʌski | ǥʌsɛŋ | asdɛmgi | saǥoŋ | ulɩmgi | ǥɛŋ | ǥɔbɩnga | aǥař | abⁱʌska | atlɨp | ŋᶺndᶺŋ | ǥumukʰ |
| Baining | Qaget | niŋaǥa; ʌ niŋʌg̶ʌ | aǥsiŋ; ʌg̶asiŋ | asⁿdəmgi; sᵊdᵊmki | ʌ rʌsʌkŋiʌm; saknaǥa | ǥəřɩmki; ʌ rʌg̶ʌrimgi | ařkiŋ; ařkingi | ǥalbiⁿka; og̶lbinga | ʌ laiŋyat; ɩlaⁱŋ | ʌg̶ʌřʌkʌ; ǥᵊřᵊka | lan; sləpki | ǥət·dinki; ʌrʌgʌtdəŋit | ǥomʌk; og̶əmək |
| Baining | Ura | amʌ niŋʌǥi; auwʌski; ʌmʌ niŋʌǥɩ | aɣʌsɛŋ; kʌsiŋ; kʌsɩŋ | asdʌmgi; dʌsdəmgɩ; dʌsdəmgi | asauɣoŋ; ʌ̂ sʌǥon; ʌ sʌǥoŋ | awʌlyʌmgi; ʌ ǥulimgɩ; ʌ ǥulimgi | atkiŋgi; ʌ ǥʌřʌ; naeyɛŋ; næyɛŋ | aɣuebunga; duɛbingʌ | ʌgʌřʌ | a biaska; biʌskʌ | a Lləp; ʌ Lləp; o slʌpki | aslɩɣɩge; ʌ sliyɩgɛ; ʌ sliyigɛ | at gəmuk; atkʌmuk |
| Taulil–Butam | Taulil | 'ulun | 'dɔmɔn | ul-tʌŋʌn | 'kɔlmʌřɩn | 'bulsun | 'lɩgim; lɩkɩn | ul-kɛmɛn | fʌn | dɛh | 'suhnʌ 'kunʌ | pʰʌlkⁿeⁱn; pʰʌlɩn | susun |
| isolate | Kuot | bukom | kapuruma | kikinəm | irəma | akabunima; ŋof | laukima | məlobiem | oləbuan | muanəm | kumalip; neip; pəppək | sisima | |
| North Bougainville | Rotokas[5] | uvu | orui | uvareoua | osireito | iruvaoto | reuri | arevuoto | kokotoa | revasiva | kerua | areiua; kakauoa; gago | rorooua |
| South Bougainville | proto-South Bougainville[6] | *bore | *rome | *rutɔ | *keni | *meneŋ | *ereŋ | *kōna | |||||
| Central Solomons | Mbilua (Ndovele dialect) | lezu | tou | taliŋa | vilu | ŋgame | taka | leño | kiti | ndara | piza | tupu | susu |
| Central Solomons | Mbaniata (Lokuru dialect) | uɔ | zufu | ōŋgoto | mberɔ | emɔ | nāne | ānl | ɔe | vo | minu | zuɔna | susu |
| Central Solomons | Lavukaleve | vatu | memea | hovul | lemi | sisi | neo | let | tau furime | ravu | sosokio | keut | ɔfu |
| Central Solomons | Savosavo | batu | luta; sivuɰa | tagalu | nito | ɲoko | nale | lapi | ɰabu | tovolo | korakora | susu | |
| isolate | Yélî Dnye[7] | ny:oo | gh:aa | ngweńe | ngwolo | ń:uu | nyóó | dêê | yi | wêê | dînê | too | ngmo |
| family | language | louse | dog | pig | bird | egg | tree | sun | moon | water | fire | stone | path |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| isolate | Ata | meni | a'aa | memee | ngiala | atolu | aiinu; ovu | aso | so'io | lexa | navu | lavo'o | vote'i |
| isolate | Anem | seim | kaua | êknîn | nil | aŋ | ado | klîŋ | komu | kmî | pa | iuŋ | |
| isolate | Kol | 'tare; ta̠řɛ | ku'ɒ:; kwa | bu | 'ule; ulɛ | 'kondola; kondo̠la | 'ti:nel; ti̠nɛl | 'karege; kařɛ̠qɛ | 'igu; i̠qu | 'gonu; qu̠nu | ku'oŋ; kuɔŋ | 'lela; lɛla | kɛrɛa; 'keria |
| isolate | Sulka | ngaining | ho | yi | ngaelot, ngaelaut | ||||||||
| Baining | Mali (Arambum dialect) | it | imga | ƀɛmgaʰ | i sʌmga | la | ŋumuŋ | ʷunɛŋga | 'aǥɔngi | řiŋgi | mudʌmbʌs | diǥa | iskaʰ |
| Baining | Qaget | ᶩaⁱt; ʌ ɛɛtki | daŋka; ʌ dʌŋgʌ | ƀiləmgʌ; ƀlam | waⁱṱki; ʌ wʌitka | luaǥa; ʌ luʌg̶ʌ | mʌŋkʰa; munkʌ | ʌ niřag̶a; niřaǥa; nɩlaǥa | yaǥunki; ʌ yɔg̶ungi | ǥřapki; ʌ kʌinʌg̶i | altiŋki; ʌltiŋgi | ʌ dulkʌ; dulka | aiskʌ; aⁱska |
| Baining | Ura | məaᶥt; məaⁱt; ɩr̰aɩt | imga; mɛmgʌ | ƀɩɛmgʌ; ƀiɛmgʌ; wemga | ɛɛ'sumgʌ; ɛɛsumgʌ; isʌmga | duřaiṱ; duřaᶥt̯; luaɣa | ʌ muŋgʌ; ŋʌmuga | ɣunʌga; wunʌgʌ | yaǥunǥɩ; yaɣungi; yʌǥungi | mʌřiŋgi; mʌřɩŋgɩ; rigi | mundʌbʌs; mundʌm | duɩɣa; mʌ duɩ; mʌ dui | iska; mʌiskʌ; mʌɩskʌ |
| Taulil–Butam | Taulil | huᵗ | luf | bui | sɩgʌʔ | 'kʰɔřɔl | waⁱ | wʌsuʔ | 'kɛᵐbɛn | 'mʌlum | yʌf | fʌᵗ | ŋas |
| isolate | Kuot | ineima | kapuna | amani; kobeŋ | dəkər; səgər | panbinim | uləŋ | burunəm; danuot | kit | adəs | alaŋ | ||
| North Bougainville | Rotokas | iirui | kaakau; kevira | koie; koue | kokioto | takura | evaova | ravireo | kekira | uukoa | tuitui | aveke | raiva |
| South Bougainville | proto-South Bougainville | *masika | *bɔrege | *koi | *rua | *doŋ | |||||||
| Central Solomons | Mbilua (Ndovele dialect) | sipi; tiŋgau | siele | mbiaŋambiaŋa | tɔruru | kamboso | nĵu | uza | lando | keve | |||
| Central Solomons | Mbaniata (Lokuru dialect) | lisa; vutu | sie | mānozo | āndena | īndi | fiɔ | hirɔ | hɛŋga | e | |||
| Central Solomons | Lavukaleve | kea; lai | mitakeu | malaɣul | keruv | kua | lafi | lake | mbeko; veko | lake | |||
| Central Solomons | Savosavo | dole | misu | kosu | kolei; si | kuɰe | piva | keda | kato | keva | |||
| isolate | Yélî Dnye | y:emê wee | w:ââ | mbwêmê | ńmê; ńmo | w:uu | yi | kââdî | d:ââ | mbwaa; tolo | ndê; ndyuw:e | chêêpî | maa |
| family | language | man | woman | name | to eat | one | two |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| isolate | Ata | aliko | sema | uala | ’ie | vile | tamei |
| isolate | Anem | axaŋ | dobalîŋ | eŋi | mîdê | niak | |
| isolate | Kol | mo; tɒ: 'ti:niŋ | daiƀɛ; ra:l | 'ole | mo raŋ kal oŋ; tam·a | 'pusuɒ; titus | tɛřɛŋ; te'tepe |
| isolate | Sulka | mhel 'person' | |||||
| Baining | Mali (Arambum dialect) | umʌska | aƀopᵊkin | ŋʌrɩpkiʰ | katɨs | sɛgɨkʰ | udion |
| Baining | Qaget | ǥʷatka; ʌ g̶wʌtkʌ | nanki; ʌ nʌngi | dʸiʌringi namgi; řɨnki | ka tɨs; kʌ tᵊs | ǥʷanaska; og̶unʌskʌ | ǥʷanasⁱam; og̶unʌsiʌm |
| Baining | Ura | gamoɛɣa; gʌmuɛgʌ | ɛwəpkɩ; ɛwəpki; Ewopki | diŋyiřipki; diŋyɩrɩpkɩ; ŋʌr̰iþki | ɣat tʌs; ka ts; kʌ tᵊs | sɩgʌk; sʌgʌk; sigʌk | undiom; undɩom |
| Taulil–Butam | Taulil | bʌᵏ; taⁱ | lʌᵘ | 'wɔᵘsɩn | ŋʌnɩʔ; nʌm | ikʌᵘ; kaᵘkʌʔ | 'daU; iⁿdʌᵘ |
| isolate | Kuot | mikana; teima | makabun | bonim | o; parak | namurit | narain |
| North Bougainville | Rotokas | rare pie | avuo | vaisia | aio | katai | erao |
| South Bougainville | proto-South Bougainville | *nugaŋ | *mīŋ | *nai | |||
| Central Solomons | Mbilua (Ndovele dialect) | mamba | reko | ŋi | vuato | mandeu | omuŋga |
| Central Solomons | Mbaniata (Lokuru dialect) | finɔzɔ | ŋgohe | nini | azafe | āroŋo; thufi | ēri |
| Central Solomons | Lavukaleve | ali | aira | laŋi | eu; eui; oune | dom; tetelom | lelal; lemal |
| Central Solomons | Savosavo | tada | adaki | nini | l-ou; samu | ela; pade | edo |
| isolate | Yélî Dnye | pi | kumbwada; pyââ | pi | ma | ngmidi | miyó |
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ Greenhill, Simon (2016). "TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea". Retrieved 2020-11-05.
- ^ Hashimoto, Kazuo (2008). Ata-English Dictionary with English-Ata Finderlist. Ukarumpa: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- ^ Thurston, William. 1982. A comparative study of Anêm and Lusi. Pacific Linguistics: Series B, 83. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
- ^ Tharp, Douglas. 1996. Sulka grammar essentials. In John M. Clifton (ed.), Two non-Austronesian grammars from the islands, 77-179. Ukarumpa: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- ^ Firchow, Irwin B. and Jacqueline Firchow, compilers. 2008. Rotokas-English dictionary. Ukarumpa: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- ^ Evans, Bethwyn. 2009. Beyond pronouns: further evidence for South Bougainville. In Bethwyn Evans (ed.), Discovering history through language: Papers in honour of Malcolm Ross, 73-101. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
- ^ Henderson, James E. and Anne Henderson, compilers. 1999. Rossel to English, English to Rossel Dictionary. Dictionaries of Papua New Guinea, Vol. 9. Ukarumpa: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Dunn, Michael; Ger Reesink; Angela Terrill (June 2002). "The East Papuan languages: a preliminary typological appraisal". Oceanic Linguistics. 41 (1): 28–62. doi:10.1353/ol.2002.0019. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1ADC-1. OCLC 89720097. S2CID 143012930.
- Dunn, Michael; Angela Terrill; Ger Reesink; Robert A. Foley; Stephen C. Levinson (2005-09-23). "Structural Phylogenetics and the Reconstruction of Ancient Language History". Science. 309 (5743): 2072–75. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.2072D. doi:10.1126/science.1114615. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1B84-E. OCLC 111923848. PMID 16179483. S2CID 2963726.
- Dunn, Michael; Malcolm Ross (2007). "Is Kazukuru really non-Austronesian?" (PDF). Oceanic Linguistics. 46: 210–231. doi:10.1353/ol.2007.0018. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1EBB-9. S2CID 146355432.
- Ross, Malcolm (2001). "Is there an East Papuan phylum? Evidence from pronouns". In Andrew Pawley; Malcolm Ross; Darrell Tryon (eds.). The boy from Bundaberg: Studies in Melanesian linguistics in honour of Tom Dutton. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. pp. 301–322. ISBN 978-0-85883-445-3. OCLC 48651069.
- Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
- Wurm, Stephen A. (1975). "The East Papuan phylum in general". In Stephen A. Wurm (ed.). Papuan languages and the New Guinea linguistic scene: New Guinea area languages and language study 1. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. pp. 783–804. OCLC 37096514.