Anindilyakwa language
| Anindilyakwa | |
|---|---|
| Enindhilyakwa, Enindhilyagwa | |
| Amamalya Ayakwa | |
| Native to | Australia Northern Territory |
| Region | Groote Eylandt, Bickerton Island, Northern Territory, Australia |
| Ethnicity | Warnindhilyagwa |
Native speakers | 1,500 (2021 census)[1] |
Macro-Pama–Nyungan?
| |
| Latin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | aoi |
| Glottolog | anin1240 |
| AIATSIS[2] | N151 |
| ELP | Anindilyakwa |
 A map highlighting Groote Eylandt and Bickerton Island where Anindilyakwa is spoken. | |
 Anindilyakwa is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger | |
Anindilyakwa (Amamalya Ayakwa) is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken by the Anindilyakwa people on Groote Eylandt and Bickerton Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria in the Northern Territory of Australia. Anindilyakwa is a multiple-classifying prefixing language in which all traditional nouns, adjectives, personal and demonstrative pronouns are prefixed for person, number and gender.[3] According to the 2021 Australian Census, Anindilyakwa was spoken natively by 1,516 people, an increase from 1,283 in 2006.[4]
Names[edit]
The local Anindilyakwa people refer to the language as Amamalya Ayakwa (Amamalya means 'true' and Ayakwa means 'words'). However, Anindilyakwa is still commonly used.[5]
Before linguists established orthography, people had spelt Anindilyakwa in multiple ways. These included Andiljangwa, Andilyaugwa, Aninhdhilyagwa, Enindiljaugwa, Enindhilyagwa, Wanindilyaugwa, Ingura, and Yingguru. It is also known as Groote Eylandt after its location.[2]
Linguistic classification[edit]
Once considered a family level isolate, Van Egmond (2012) has demonstrated Anindilyakwa to be part of the Eastern branch of the Gunwinyguan family, relating it to Nunggubuyu and (more distantly) Ngandi, using correspondences between core vocabulary, verbal morphological forms, phonemes, and verbal inflectional paradigms.[6][7]
Phonology[edit]
Vowels[edit]
The analysis of Anindilyakwa's vowels is open to interpretation. Stokes[8] analyses it as having 4 phonemic vowels, /i e a u/. Leeding[9] analyses it as having just 2, /ɨ a/ with allophones [ i ɪ u ɯ ə o a ] and [ a æ aɪ æɪ e eɪ ɒ aʊ ], respectively.
Consonants[edit]
| Peripheral | Coronal | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilabial | Velar | Laminal | Apical | ||||
| rounded | unrounded | Palatal | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | ||
| Plosive | p | kʷ | k | c | t̪ | t | ʈ |
| Nasal | m | ŋʷ | ŋ | ɲ | n̪ | n | ɳ |
| Lateral | ʎ | l̪ | (ɭ) | ||||
| Rhotic | r | ɻ | |||||
| Glide | w | j | |||||
Phonotactics[edit]
Anindilyakwa words almost always end with a final vowel 'a'. Clusters of up to 3 consonants such as 'ngw' can occur within words.
Grammar[edit]
Noun classes[edit]
Anindilyakwa has 5 noun classes, or genders, each marked by a prefix:
| Male | human | n- |
|---|---|---|
| non-human | y- | |
| Female | human or non-human | d- |
| Inanimate | neuter | a- |
| vegetable | m- |
For bound pronouns, instead of "human male" and "non-human male" classes there is a single "male" class.
All traditional Anindilyakwa nouns carry a class prefix, but some loanwords may lack them.
Numerals[edit]
The language traditionally had numerals up to 20 but since the introduction of English, English words are now used almost exclusively for numbers above 5.[10]
Anindilyakwa uses a quinary number system. The numbers are also adjectival and must be qualified with their corresponding noun class. 'One crocodile' becomes dawilyaba dingarrbiya, '2 turtles' becomes yambilyuma yimenda.
'Nothing' is expressed by nara ebina, 'not any'. There is no term for '"infinity", but the concept "innumerable" can be expressed by: yinguwurramur.dinama dakwulyingarrijanga 'there are too many stars to count.'[11]
| 1 | Awilyaba | 11 | Ememberrkwa awilyaba |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | Ambilyuma | 12 | Ememberrkwa ambilyuma |
| 3 | Abiyakarbiya | 13 | Ememberrkwa abiyakarbiyia |
| 4 | Abiyarbuwa | 14 | Ememberrkwa abiyarbuwa |
| 5 | Amangbala | 15 | Amaburrkwakbala |
| 6 | Amangbala awilyaba | 16 | Amaburrkwakbala awilyaba |
| 7 | Amangbala ambilyuma | 17 | Amaburrkwakbala ambilyuma |
| 8 | Amangbala abiyakarbiya | 18 | Amaburrkwakbala abiyakarbiya |
| 9 | Amangbala abiyarbuwa | 19 | Amaburrkwakbala abiyarbuwa |
| 10 | Ememberrkwa | 20 | Wurrakiriyabulangwa |
Adjectives[edit]
Size degrees is done in 2 grades the positive and a diminutive (warrngka), although reduplication of this word is possible for an intensifying effect.[9]
Pronouns[edit]
Personal pronouns[edit]
Anindilyakwa features 5 grammatical numbers for pronouns: singular, feminine dual, masculine dual, trial, and plural.
The language has a clusivity distinction common in many Aboriginal Australian languages – ngakwurruwa 'inclusive we' and yirruwa 'exclusive we'. 'Inclusive we' includes explicitly the addressee (that is, 'you and I, and possibly others'). 'Exclusive we' excludes explicitly the addressee (that is, 'he/she/they and I, but not you'), regardless of who else may be involved.
| Singular | Dual | Trial | Plural | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| male | female | |||||
| exclusive | ngayuwa 'I' |
yinuwa 'we two men or women, but not you' |
yirringuwa 'we two women, but not you' |
yirribukwurruwa 'we three or four people, but not you' |
yirruwa 'we all, excluding you' | |
| inclusive | - | yakuwa 'you and me' |
yakuwa 'you and me' |
ngarrubukwurruwa 'we three or four, including you' |
ngakwurruwa 'we all, including you' | |
| 2nd person | nungkuwa 'you' |
nungkwurnuwa 'you two men, or man and woman' |
nungkwurruguwa 'you two women' |
nungkwurrubukwurruwa 'you three or four people' |
nungkwurruwa 'you, many people' | |
| 3rd person | enuwa 'he' | aburnuwa 'they two men', or 'man and woman' |
aburrunguwa 'they two women' |
aburrubukwurruwa 'they three or four people' |
aburruwa 'they all, them' | |
| ngaluwa 'she' | ||||||
Possessive pronouns[edit]
With the exception of my, possessive pronouns in Anindilyakwa replace the -uwa suffix from the singular or plural pronouns with -langwa 'belonging to'.
| English | Anindilyakwa |
|---|---|
| My | Nganyangwa |
| Yours (singular) | Nungkwa-langwa |
| Yours (plural) | Nungkwurra-langwa |
| Ours (exclusive) | Yirra-langwa |
| Ours (inclusive) | Ngakwurra-langwa |
| Theirs | Aburra-langwa |
| His | Ena-langwa |
| Hers | Ngala-langwa |
| Suffix | Gloss |
|---|---|
| -baba | because |
| -dangwa | the one that's better or best |
| -manja | by (beside), in, at, on, when, with (people) |
| -minjena | mother of child |
| -mubaba | because (on verbs) |
| -mulangwa | about, of, from (on verbs); after |
| -murra | from (by means of), with (by means of) |
| -murriya | etc., and the rest |
| -langwa | belonging to, from, of |
| -langwa-langwa | around, along |
| -langwiya | along, along and around, over (in the sense of travelling over an area), through |
| -ma | in (by means of); only, just (one); with (by means of) |
| -yada | for (for the purpose of), so (that), to make, used on time words |
| -wiya | all over, still (in sense of being the same), used on time words |
| -wa | to |
For kinship nouns, there are 7 possessive suffixes used that distinguish between first, second and thirds, singular or plural numbers, and third person genders.
| Singular | Non-singular | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Suffix | Example | Suffix | Example | ||
| 1st person | -arrka | Nganyanwa nungwarrka 'My father' |
|||
| 2nd person | -ena | Nungkwa-langwa nungwena 'Your father' |
|||
| 3rd person | Male | -enikba | Ena-langwa nungenikba 'His father' |
-arringba | Aburra-langwa nungarringba 'Their father' |
| Female | -adukba | Ngala-langwa nungadukba 'Her father' | |||
Language maintenance[edit]
Groote Eylandt Language Centre[edit]
The Groote Eylandt Language Centre (GELC) promotes, maintains, and preserves Anindilyakwa. They are based in Angurugu with offices in Umbakumba and Bickerton Island. It hosts a significant collection of language and cultural resources relating to the Warnindilyakwa people. The Centre undertakes language projects both large and small and offers services such as language recording and resource development, language advice and expertise, and translation.[12]
Previously known as Groote Eylandt Linguistics, Church Mission Society ran the department until 2006. The CMS created the orthography with the Latin script to translate Bible texts into Anindilyakwa. The centre now operates under the "Preserving Culture" department of the Anindilyakwa Land Council.[13]
GELC has compiled and published the Anindilyakwa dictionary Eningerriberra-langwa jurra "The Book about Everything",[14] as well as producing an online dictionary,[15] and a web app with the assistance of the Australian Literacy and Numeracy Foundation.[16] They also run a YouTube channel with an expanding content of videos and resources in Anindilyakwa.[17]
Lexicon[edit]
Macassan influence[edit]
Makassar people from the region of Sulawesi (modern-day Indonesia) began visiting the coast of northern Australia sometime around the early to middle 1700s.[18] This happened yearly until the introduction of the White Australia Policy in 1906.[19] The Macassans visited Groote Eylandt for trade, particularly for highly prized trepang in the South China Sea. The Macassans also brought with them tamarinds (jamba), dugout canoes (malamukwa), tobacco (dambakwa) and beer (anija). Evan analyses that there are potentially 35 Makassarese words, mostly nouns, that have entered the Anindilyakwa language, including many place names such as Umbakumba (Malay word ombak-ombak for 'lapping of waves') and Bartalumba Bay (Macassan word batu lompoa for 'the big rock').[6]
| English | Makassarese | Anindilyakwa | English | Makassarese | Anindilyakwa | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| lapping of waves | ombak-ombak | Umbakumba | the big rock | batu lompoa | Batalumba Bay | |
| alcohol | anisi | anija | tobacco | tambako | dambakwa | |
| anchor | balaŋo | balangwa | horse | jarang | jarrangwa | |
| trepang | taripaŋ | derriba | shovel spear | lamaŋ | lama | |
| fish hook | pekaŋ | bikanga | machete | kalewaŋ | kaliwanga | |
| tamarind | jampa | jamba | fish bait | eppaŋ | libanga | |
| material/cloth | sombala | dumbala | knife | ladiŋ | lyelyinga | |
| dug-out canoe | lepalepa | libaliba | coconut | kaluku | kalukwa | |
| book | surat | jurra | boss | puŋgawa | bungawa | |
| white person | balanda | balanda | lantern | baraccuŋ | bajananga | |
| gun | sinapaŋ | jinaba | billycan | bassi kaleŋ | bajikala | |
| nail | paso | baja | axe | paŋkulu | bangkilya | |
| boat | biseaŋ | mijiyanga | rudder | gulin | kulunga | |
| box | patti | bada | mast/sail | pallayarraŋ | baliyerra | |
| north-west wind | bara | barra | south wind | sallataŋ | dalada | |
| north-east wind | tuŋkara 'SE wind' | lungkurrma | north-east wind | timoro | dimburra | |
| east wind | tuŋkara 'SE wind' | dungkwarra |
Questions[edit]
| English | Anindilyakwa | English | Anindilyakwa |
|---|---|---|---|
| Where?/Where is it? | Angamba? | 'Who?' | Angkaburra? |
| Where to?/Where are you going? | Ngambu-wa? | 'Who's that?' | Angkaburra wurrangaba? |
| Where from?/Where did you come from? | Ngamba-langwa? | 'Whose?' | Angkaburra-langwa? |
| Where at?/Where are you? | Nga-manja? | 'Can I sit here?' | Ngambarriya-langwa? |
| When? | Ngambi-yada? | 'How much?/How many?' | Ambarrngarna? |
| What is your name? | Amiyembena ekirra nungkwa-langwa? | 'You good?/How are you?' | Ningkeningaba? |
| What? | Miyambena? | 'What are you doing?' | Ningkiyamarrkinama ningkakina? |
| Why? (for what reason?) | Miyambena-baba? | 'What are you looking at?' | Amiyembena ningkirringka nungkuwa? |
| Why? (for what purpose?) | Miyambena-yada? | ||
| What with?/How? (By what means?) | Miyambena-ma/Miyambena-murra? | ||
| What's the time? | Mamiyembena mamawura mema? |
Animals[edit]
| English | Anindilyakwa | English | Anindilyakwa |
|---|---|---|---|
| Crocodile | Dingarrbiya | Wallaby, kangaroo | Yiburada |
| Gecko | Yibilyibilya | Dingo | Warnungwenimbaluba |
| Goanna | Yaraja | Frilled lizard | Dukwululuwawa |
| Blue-tongued lizard | Yimarndakuwaba | Turtle | Yimenda |
| Rock wallaby | Dilanda | Bandicoot | Yirukwujilangwa |
| Native-cat | Yiniyerruwena | Mice, rats | Wurrendinda |
| Possum | Yukungba | Sugar glider | Yelyuwarra |
| Echidna | Dijinungkwa | Snakes | Yingarna |
| English | Anindilyakwa | English | Anindilyakwa |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dog | Wurrawarda | Pig | Bikibiki |
| Chicken | Jukwajukwa | Cat | Bujikeda |
| Horse | Jarrangwa | Cow | Bulukwa |
| Deer | Bambi | Goat | Nenukwuda |
| English | Anindilyakwa | English | Anindilyakwa |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fish | Akwalya | Turtle | Yimenda |
| Shark | Mangiyuwanga | Stingray | Amaduwaya |
| Sawfish | Yukwurrirringdangwa | Shellfish | Adidira |
| Octopus | Amilyengmilyengmaka | Crab | Angwala |
| Dugong | Dinungkwulangwa | Dolphin | Dinginjabena |
| Trepang | Yungwula | Starfish | Miyalkwa |
| Frog | Dilyaburnda |
In popular culture[edit]
Music[edit]
- Emily Wurramara is an ARIA-nominated Anindilyakwa singer and songwriter from Groote Eylandt. She writes and sings songs in both English and Anindilyakwa.[20]
- Yilila is a band from Numbulwar. Lead vocalist Grant Nundhirribala is a master of traditional music and a highly respected song man and dancer. The band performs their music in Wubuy, Anindilyakwa, Maccassan language and English.[21]
- Other noteworthy bands include Mambali from Numbulwar, Groote Eylandt Band from Angurugu and Salt Lake Band from Umbakumba.
Film and television[edit]
- The Last Wave (released in the USA as Black Rain) is a 1977 Australian mystery drama film directed by Peter Weir where a white lawyer represents a group of Aboriginal men accused of murder.[22][23] Also starring Yolngu man David Gulpilil, local Anindilyakwa men Nandjiwarra Amagula, Walter, Roy Bara, Cedrick Lalara, and Morris Lalara portray the men on trial.
- Bakala is a 2017 award-winning short film written and directed by Nikolas Lachajczak and told entirely in the Anindilyakwa language. It follows the story of Anindilyakwa man, Steve 'Bakala' Wurramara, who is afflicted with Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD), a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder that results in a lack of muscle control and coordination of the upper and lower extremities.[24]
- Anija is a 2011 award-winning short film written and directed by David Hansen. It is filmed mainly in the Anindilyakwa language and follows the experiences of one family dealing with the effects of alcohol addiction. The film won Best Indigenous Resource at the Australian Teachers of Media (ATOM) Awards in 2011.
- Anindilyakwa was featured in Spread the Word, an Indigenous Australian languages show on The Disney Channel. The show featured the Anindilyakwa word Ngarrarndirrarjena which translates to 'kicking a tree to get something off of it.'
Commemoration[edit]
- In 2019 the Royal Australian Mint issued a 50 cent coin to celebrate the International Year of Indigenous Languages which features 14 different words for 'money' from Australian Indigenous languages including awarnda for Anindilyakwa. The coin was designed by Aleksandra Stokic in consultation with Indigenous language custodian groups.[25]
References[edit]
- ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (2021). "Cultural diversity: Census". Retrieved 13 October 2022.
- ^ a b N151 Anindilyakwa at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
- ^ Waddy, Julie (1988). Classification of Plants and Animals from a Groote Eylandt Aboriginal Point of View. Australian National University North Australia Research Unit Monograph.
- ^ "2016".
- ^ "Our Language - Amamalya Ayakwa (Anindilyakwa)".
- ^ a b Van Egmond, M-E. (2012). "Enindhilyakwa phonology, morphosyntax and genetic position." Doctoral thesis. University of Sydney. pp. 314–70.
- ^ Bowern, C. (2017). "Language isolates of Australia." in Campbell, L., ed. Language Isolates. Abingdon: Routledge: 323–43
- ^ Stokes, J. (1981). "Anindilyakwa phonology from phoneme to syllable". In Waters, B. (ed.). Australian phonologies: collected papers. Darwin: Summer Institute of Linguistics, Australian Aborigines Branch. pp. 138–81.
- ^ a b Leeding, V. J. (1989). Anindilyakwa phonology and morphology. PhD dissertation. University of Sydney. pp. 38–60. hdl:2123/1558.
- ^ Stokes, J. (1982). "A description of the mathematical concepts of Groote Eylandt Aborigines". In Hargrave, S. (ed.). Work Papers of SIL-AAB: Language and Culture. Darwin: Summer Institute of Linguistics, Australian Aborigines Branch. pp. 33–152.
- ^ "Anindilyakwa". mpi-lingweb.shh.mpg.de. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
- ^ "Groote Eylandt Language Centre about".
- ^ "GELC history".
- ^ Eningerriberra-langwa jurra. Groote Eylandt Linguistics. 1993. ISBN 9780869070635.
- ^ "Ekirra-langwa".
- ^ "ALNF Anindilykwa Dictionary".
- ^ "Groote Eylandt Language Centre". YouTube.
- ^ "Aboriginal-Makassan interactions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in northern Australia and contemporary sea rights claims" (PDF). Australian Aboriginal Studies. 2004 (1). Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies: 3(15). 22 March 2004. ISSN 0729-4352. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
- ^ Bednall, James (January 2020). "Temporal, aspectual and modal expression in Anindilyakwa, the language of the Groote Eylandt Archipelago, Australia".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Nally, Alicia (6 July 2017). "Carving her own pathway". Cairns Post.
- ^ "Yilila".
- ^ Variety film review; 16 November 1977, p. 21.
- ^ "The Last Wave". Creative Spirits. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
- ^ "Bakala (2017)". IMDb.
- ^ mhones (8 April 2019). "International Year of Indigenous Languages commemorated with new coins launched by Royal Australian Mint and AIATSIS". www.ramint.gov.au. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
- Leeding, V. J. (1996). "Body parts and possession in Anindilyakwa". In Chappell, H.; McGregor, W. (eds.). The grammar of inalienability: a typological perspective on body part terms and the part-whole relation. Berlin: Mounton de Gruyter. pp. 193–249.